5. To establish the Plutonic theory, it is at least necessary to demonstrate that the granite, which all hold to be the under rock, is the unstratified Plutonic foundation of all stratified rock. Recent facts have demonstrated that the granite is a sedimentary rock, or rock deposited in water. This being admitted, although contradicting the teachings of all the older text books, some writers, among them is Steel, in order to harmonize the Plutonic theory with these stubborn facts, have assumed that the primitive granite, which by the theory must have been trap or lava, has all been worn away by disintegration of water and ice, or both; and again, by water deposited as we now find it. But what was a white-hot globe of lava doing, while water and ice were tearing and grinding its lower crust to powdered sand? We have secondary granite, but its structure is very different from primitive granite. Besides containing hard pebbles and boulders of other stone, it is friable, and easily disintegrated under exposure. It is a bad theory that is driven to such unheard-of suppositions for its support. Nothing is more evident, if the granite is the under rock, and sedimentary, as represented and known to be, than that the Plutonic theory is completely without foundation.
6. The modern theory of metamorphic rock, occasioned by internal heat, is also false. This theory maintains that the granite, slates, and marble existed so near to the great body of internal heat that they must have been metamorphosed. Facts demonstrate that these rocks, as a rule, were never in heat equal to 700 deg. Fahr. Such a heat will readily disintegrate any of these formations. Any one can demonstrate this by melting a little lead upon a piece of slate, marble, or granite. The furnace is found to be the best general test of the origin of rock. Lava, having been in a melted state, will not disintegrate up to the melting point, but, as a rule, will readily melt at the white heat. Granite, the slates, marble, and rock in general, of a sedimentary formation, will disintegrate at a comparatively low heat, but they will not melt, except with alkaloids, or flux, and then only at a very high degree of heat. This test shows all the primitive rock, including injected seams, to have been formed in the sea, with no heat to change their structure since. There are a few exceptions to the rule of disintegration, as clay rock.
7. If the granite were not sedimentary, we could not account for the great quantity of sedimentary rock this side. Among the authors of our text books there seems to be a general vagueness concerning the origin of stratified rock, except in regard to coal, which all admit came out of the air. If we should assume that the granite was lava, but all the stratified rock since, until you reach the region of conglomerate, came from the air, how shall we account for the close similarity in appearance and structure of the gneiss and granite? Theory has piled thirty or forty miles of this sedimentary, stratified rock above the granite; whence did it come? Any openings in the granite would let up only lava. Whence the material for sediment? We shall, farther on, show that all primitive rock, like the coal, came from the gases of the atmosphere once enveloping this globe.
8. Our best scientists now readily unite with the keen sighted miner in accounting for this increase of heat as you pass down the shaft, on entirely different principles from those stated in the text books. Prof. Joseph Le Conte says that “Chemical action of air and water upon the rock, as you descend into the Earth’s crust, is undoubtedly the cause of the increase of heat.” Again he says, “This heat is regulated and gauged by the constituents of the rock that you pass.” Now admitting that the rock, as a rule, would show an average increase of heat down to the Carboniferous system, or even to the Devonian, yet there is rock enough beyond that contains so much less carbon, as to show such a decrease of heat that must more than counteract all the increase above. Whether we follow up the old hypothesis, with the laws regulating heat by conduction or chemical action, the theory is utterly without foundation. The late Prof. Norton, of the California State Normal, said in a lecture at Pacific Grove, in 1883, “Every living geologist that I know of in the world will admit, for he knows, that the granite was a sedimentary rock.” This sentiment of his speech being reported to Le Conte, he replied, “In this position Prof. Norton is undoubtedly right.” It is thus seen that the Plutonic theory in our text books is at variance with modern experiments, and is proved to be utterly false.
9. Volcanoes and geysers were formerly supposed to settle the question in favor of the old theory. The phenomena of both are such as to strongly argue against it. Most geysers are known to be caused by chemical action of rock. We instance those in Hot Spring Valley, Cal., near Lassen Buttes. No one, having noticed the various colored mud-pots and mounds of pulpy rock thrown up by these boiling cauldrons, can come to any other conclusion. A few geysers may be exceptions, having been caused by water trickling over heated rock in proximity to volcanoes. These prove nothing as to the center of the earth, until it can be established that this body of lava is in the center of the earth. A multitude of facts in connection with volcanic action demonstrate that lava does not proceed from a common center.
A few we will here give. (1.) Lava varies in color according to the color of the stratified rock found in the vicinity. Thus, between Reno and Wadsworth, Nevada, may be seen a red ledge of sedimentary rock. Close by are found quantities of red lava, being the same shade of red found in the sedimentary. Pieces of rock may be seen, one side showing the sedimentary strata, and the other partially melted. Lava everywhere, probably, is only sedimentary rock melted. (2.) Volcanic disturbances are local, which they could not be if they proceeded from a common center. (3.) The existence of great quantities of ashes, so light as to float on the surface of water, argues the consumption of some burning material, as of coal. Nothing of this would exist in matter that had primarily been collected in liquid, and had ever been in a fused state. Something must have been burning to produce the ashes. (4.) The fact of all the great upheavals of plateaus and mountains having been this side the Carboniferous system of deposit, where the burning material, sufficient to produce volcanic effect, was extracted from the air and laid down as rock, argues in favor of a power much nearer than force, generated from a primeval sea of lava. Burning coal as a source of heat, and steam as a power, are ample to account for every volcanic disturbance, however it may have been modified by electric forces.
10. Most geologists are dissatisfied with the fire theory, and are looking about for a revolution in the teaching of the science. Professor Norton said, “We are upon the eve of a perfect revolution in the science of geology.” Agassiz said, “The Plutonic theory loses ground as soon as brought to scientific tests.” Again he uttered with decided emphasis, “If the center of our earth were molten lava, as hot as represented, a crust of rock fifty miles thick would melt, and, in the space of a few hours, fall into the great sea.”
A teacher of geology in one of our large colleges, who had just finished a lecture upon the Plutonic theory, said, “I have given that theory because it is the teaching of all our text-books; but I do not believe it. Many facts now coming to light show that the Water theory is destined to come to the front.”
11. The fact that submarine volcanoes happen, without letting the ocean into the great sea of lava, shows that no such sea is there. But for the money and reputation invested in school books upon this defunct theory, it would have been, before this, consigned to the Plutonic hell of the Greeks, from whence, it is more than probable, it originated.
12. Many admitted facts are utterly inconsistent with this theory. We will stop to notice but two.