History for ready reference, Volume 1, A-Elba

by J. N. Larned

SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 281-224, and 224-187). At its greatest
extent, the dominion of the Ptolemies, under Ptolemy
Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Lagus, included large parts of
Asia Minor and many of the Greek islands. Egypt and Cyrene
they held, with little disturbance, until Rome absorbed them.
Notwithstanding the vices which the family of Ptolemy
developed, and which were as rank of their kind as history can
show, Egypt under their rule appears to have been one of the
most prosperous countries of the time. In Alexandria, they
more than realized the dream of its Macedonian projector. They
made it not only the wealthiest city of their day, but the
greatest seat of learning,--the successor of Athens as the
capital of Greek civilization in the ancient world.
S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapter 7-12.
The first Ptolemy abdicated in favor of his son, Ptolemy
Philadelphus, in 284 B. C., and died in the second year
following.
See MACEDONIA: B. C. 297-280.
"Although the political constitution of Egypt was not greatly
altered when the land fell into Greek hands, yet in other
respects great changes took place. The mere fact that Egypt
took its place among a family of Hellenistic nations, instead
of claiming as of old a proud isolation, must have had a great
effect on the trade, the manufactures, and the customs of the
country. To begin with trade. Under the native kings Egypt had
scarcely any external trade, and trade could scarcely spring
up during the wars with Persia. But under the Ptolemies,
intercourse between Egypt and Sicily, Syria or Greece, would
naturally and necessarily advance rapidly. Egypt produced
manufactured goods which were everywhere in demand; fine
linen, ivory, porcelain, notably that papyrus which Egypt
alone produced, and which was necessary to the growing trade
in manuscripts. Artificial barriers being once removed,
enterprising traders of Corinth and Tarentum, Ephesus and
Rhodes, would naturally seek these goods in Egypt, bringing in
return whatever of most attractive their own countries had to
offer. It seems probable that the subjects of the Ptolemies
seldom or never had the courage to sail direct down the Red
Sea to India. In Roman times this voyage became not unusual,
but at an earlier time the Indian trade was principally in the
hands of the Arabs of Yemen and of the Persian Gulf.
Nevertheless the commerce of Egypt under the Ptolemies spread
eastwards as well as westwards. The important towns of Arsinoë
and Berenice arose on the Red Sea as emporia of the Arabian
trade. And as always happens when Egypt is in vigorous hands,
the limits of Egyptian rule and commerce were pushed further
and further up the Nile. The influx into Alexandria and
Memphis of a crowd of Greek architects, artists, and artizans,
could not fail to produce movement in that stream of art which
had in Egypt long remained all but stagnant. ... If we may
trust the somewhat over-coloured and flighty panegyrics which
have come down to us, the material progress of Egypt under
Ptolemy Philadelphus was most wonderful. We read, though we
cannot for a moment trust the figures of Appian, that in his
reign Egypt possessed an army of 200,000 foot soldiers and
40,000 horsemen, 300 elephants and 2,000 chariots of war. The
fleet at the same period is said to have included 1,500 large
vessels, some of them with twenty or thirty banks of oars.
Allowing for exaggeration, we must suppose that Egypt was then
more powerful than it had been since the days of Rameses."
P. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, chapter 7.
See, also, ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 282-246;
and EDUCATION, ANCIENT: ALEXANDRIA.
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EGYPT: B. C. 80-48.
Strife among the Ptolemies.
Roman pretensions.
The throne of Egypt being disputed, B. C. 80, between
Cleopatra Berenice, who had seized it, and her step-son,
Ptolemy Alexander, then in Rome, the latter bribed the Romans
to support his claims by making a will in which he named the
Roman Republic as his heir. The Senate, thereat, sent him to
Alexandria with orders that Berenice should marry him and that
they should reign jointly, as king and queen. The order was
obeyed. The foully mated pair were wedded, and, nineteen days
afterwards, the young king procured the death of his queen.
The crime provoked an insurrection in which Ptolemy Alexander
was slain by his own guard. This ended the legitimate line of
the Ptolemies; but an illegitimate prince, usually called
Auletes, or "the piper," was put on the throne, and he
succeeded in holding it for twenty-four years. The claim of
the Romans, under the will of Ptolemy Alexander, seems to have
been kept in abeyance by the bribes which Auletes employed
with liberality among the senatorial leaders. In 58 B. C. a
rising at Alexandria drove Auletes from the throne; in 54 B.
C. he bought the support of Gabinius, Roman pro-consul in
Syria, who reinstated him. He died in 51 B. C. leaving by will
his kingdom to his elder daughter, Cleopatra, and his elder
son, Ptolemy, who, according to the abominable custom of the
Ptolemies, were to marry one another and reign together. The
Roman people, by the terms of the will were made its
executors. When, therefore, Cæsar, coming to Alexandria, three
years afterwards, found the will of Auletes set at nought,
Ptolemy occupying the throne, alone, and Cleopatra struggling
against him, he had some ground for a pretension of right to
interfere.
S. Sharpe, History of Egypt, chapter 11.
EGYPT: B. C. 48-47.
Civil war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy.
Intervention of Cæsar.
The rising against him.
The Romans besieged in Alexandria.
Their ruthless victory.
See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 48-47.
EGYPT: B. C. 30.
Organized as a Roman province.
After the battle of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, Egypt
was reduced by Octavius to the rank of a Roman province and
the dynasty of the Ptolemies extinguished. But Octavius "had
no intention of giving to the senate the rich domain which he
tore from its native rulers. He would not sow in a foreign
soil the seeds of independence which he was intent upon
crushing nearer home. ... In due time he persuaded the senate
and people to establish it as a principle, that Egypt should
never be placed under the administration of any man of
superior rank to the equestrian, and that no senator should be
allowed even to visit it, without express permission from the
supreme authority."
C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 29.
EGYPT: A. D. 100-500.
Roman and Christian.
See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 48-47 to A. D. 413-415;
and CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100, and 100-312.
EGYPT: A. D. 296.
Revolt crushed by Diocletian.
See ALEXANDRIA: A. D. 296.
EGYPT: A. D. 616-628.
Conquest by Chosroes, the Persian.
The career of conquest pursued by Chosroes, the last Persian
conqueror, extended even to Egypt, and beyond it. "Egypt
itself, the only province which had been exempt since the time
of Diocletian from foreign and domestic war, was again subdued
by the successors of Cyrus. Pelusium, the key of that
impervious country, was surprised by the cavalry of the
Persians: they passed with impunity the innumerable channels
of the Delta, and explored the long valley of the Nile from
the pyramids of Memphis to the confines of Æthiopia.
Alexandria might have been relieved by a naval force, but the
archbishop and the præfect embarked for Cyprus; and Chosroes
entered the second city of the empire, which still preserved a
wealthy remnant of industry and commerce. His western trophy
was erected, not on the walls of Carthage, but in the
neighbourhood of Tripoli: the Greek colonies of Cyrene were
finally extirpated." By the peace concluded in 628, after the
death of Chosroes, all of his conquests were restored to the
empire and the cities of Syria and Egypt evacuated by their
Persian garrisons.
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 46.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717
See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.
EGYPT: A. D. 640-646.
Moslem conquest.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 640-646.
EGYPT: A. D. 967-1171.
Under the Fatimite Caliphs.
See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 908-1171.
EGYPT: A. D. 1168-1250.
Under the Atabeg and Ayoubite sultans.
See SALADIN, THE EMPIRE OF.
EGYPT: A. D. 1218-1220.
Invasion by the Fifth Crusade.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1216-1229.
EGYPT: A. D. 1249-1250.
The crusading invasion by Saint Louis of France.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1248-1254.
EGYPT: A. D. 1250-1517.
The Mameluke Sultans.
The Mamelukes were a military body created by Saladin. "The
word means slave (literally, the possessed'), and ... they
were brought in youth from northern countries to serve in the
South. Saladin himself was a Kurd, and long before his
accession to power, Turkish and Kurdish mercenaries were
employed by the Caliphs of Bagdad and Cairo, as the Pope
employs Swiss. ... Subsequently, however, Circassia became the
country which most largely furnished this class of troops.
Their apprenticeship was a long and laborious one: they were
taught, first of all, to read the Koran and to write; then
followed lance-exercise, during which time nobody was allowed
to speak to them. At first they either resided in the castle,
or were exercised living under tents; but after the time of
Sultan Barkouk they were allowed to live in the town [Cairo],
and the quarter now occupied by the Jews was at that time
devoted to the Circassian Mamelukes. After this period they
neglected their religious and warlike exercises, and became
degenerate and corrupt. ... The dynasty of Saladin ... was of
no duration, and ended in 648 A. H., or 1250 of the Christian era.
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Then began the so-called Bahrite Sultans, in consequence of
the Mamelukes of the sultan Negm-ed-din having lodged in
Rodah, the Island in the Nile (Bahr-en-Nil). The intriguer of
the period was Sheger-ed-dur, the widow of the monarch, who
married one of the Mamelukes, Moez-eddin-aibek-el-Turcomany,
who became the first of these Bahrite Sultans, and was himself
murdered in the Castle of Cairo through this woman. ... Their
subsequent history, until the conquest of Egypt by Sultan
Selim in 1517, presents nothing but a series of acts of lust,
murder and rapine. So rapidly did they expel each other from
power, that the average reign of each did not exceed five or
six years. ... The 'fleeting purple' of the decline and fall
of the Roman Empire is the spectacle which these Mameluke
Dynasties constantly present."
A. A. Paton, History of the Egyptian Revolution,
volume 1, chapter 3-5.
EGYPT: A. D. 1516-1517.
Overthrow of the Mameluke Sultans.
Ottoman conquest by Sultan Selim.
See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.
EGYPT: A. D. 1798-1799.
The French conquest and occupation by Bonaparte.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST),
and 1798-1799 (AUGUST-AUGUST).
EGYPT: A. D. 1798-1799.
Bonaparte's organization of government.
His victory at Aboukir.
His return to France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-AUGUST),
and 1799 (NOVEMBER).
EGYPT: A. D. 1800.
Discontent and discouragement of the French.
The repudiated Treaty of El Arish.
Turkish defeat at Heliopolis.
Revolt crushed at Cairo.
Assassination of Kleber.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1800 (JANUARY-JUNE).
EGYPT: A. D. 1801-1802.
Expulsion of the French by the English.
Restoration of the province to Turkey.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.
EGYPT: A. D. 1803-1811.
The rise of Mohammad 'Aly (or Mehemet Ali) to power.
His treacherous destruction of the Mamelukes.
"It was during the French occupation that Mohammad 'Aly [or
Mehemet Ali] came on the scene. He was born in 1768 at the
Albanian port of Kaballa, and by the patronage of the governor
was sent to Egypt in 1801 with the contingent of troops
furnished by Kaballa to the Ottoman army then operating with
the English against the French. He rapidly rose to the command
of the Arnaut or Albanian section of the Turkish army, and
soon found himself an important factor in the confused
political position which followed the departure of the British
army. The Memluk Beys had not been restored to their former
posts as provincial governors, and were consequently ripe for
revolt against the Porte; but their party was weakened by the
rivalry of its two leaders, El-Elfy and El-Bardisy, who
divided their followers into two hostile camps. On the other
hand, the Turkish Pasha appointed by the Porte had not yet
gained a firm grip of the country, and was perpetually
apprehensive of a recall to Constantinople. Mohammad 'Aly at
the head of his Albanians was an important ally for either
side to secure, and he fully appreciated his position. He
played off one party against the other, the Pasha against the
Beys, so successfully, that he not only weakened both sides,
but made the people of Cairo, who were disgusted with the
anarchy of Memluk and Turk alike, his firm friends; and at
last suffered himself, with becoming hesitation, to be
persuaded by the entreaty of the populace to become [1805]
their ruler, and thus stepped to the supreme power in the
curious guise of the people's friend. A fearful time followed
Mohammad 'Aly's election--for such it was--to the governorship
of Egypt. The Turkish Pasha, Khurshid, held the citadel, and
Mohammad 'Aly, energetically aided by the people of Cairo,
laid siege to it. From the minaret of the mosque of Sultan
Hasan, and from the heights of Mukattam, the besiegers poured
their fire into the citadel, and Khurshid replied with an
indiscriminate cannonade upon the city. The firing went on for
weeks (pausing on Fridays), till a messenger arrived from
Constantinople bringing the confirmation of the popular vote,
in the form of a firman, appointing Mohammad 'Aly governor of
Egypt. Khurshid shortly afterwards retired, and the soldiery
amused themselves in the approved Turkish and (even worse)
Albanian fashion by making havoc of the houses of the
citizens. Mohammad 'Aly now possessed the title of Governor of
Egypt, but beyond the walls of Cairo his authority was
everywhere disputed by the Beys. ... An attempt was made to
ensnare certain of the Beys, who were encamped north of the
metropolis. On the 17th of August, 1805, the dam of the canal
of Cairo was to be cut, and some chiefs of Mohammad 'Aly's
party wrote informing them that he would go forth early on
that morning with most of his troops to witness the ceremony,
inviting them to enter and seize the city, and, to deceive
them, stipulating for a certain sum of money as a reward. The
dam, however, was cut early in the preceding night, without
any ceremony. On the following morning these Beys, with their
Memluks, a very numerous body, broke open the gate of the
suburb El-Hosey-niyeh, and gained admittance into the city.
... They marched along the principal street for some distance,
with kettle-drums behind each company, and were received with
apparent joy by the citizens. At the mosque called the
Ashrafiyeh they separated, one party proceeding to the Azhar
and the houses of certain sheykhs, and the other party
continuing along the main street, and through the gate called
Bab-Zuweyleh, where they turned up towards the citadel. Here
they were fired on by some soldiers from the houses; and with
this signal a terrible massacre commenced. Falling back
towards their companions, they found the by-streets closed;
and in that part of the main thoroughfare called
Beyn-el-Kasreyn, they were suddenly placed between two fires.
Thus shut up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the
collegiate mosque of the Barkukiyeh, while the remainder
fought their way through their enemies, and escaped over the
city wall with the loss of their horses. Two Memluks had in
the meantime succeeded, by great exertions, in giving the
alarm to their comrades in the quarter of the Azhar, who
escaped by the eastern gate called Bab-el-Ghureyyib. A
horrible fate awaited those who had shut themselves up in the
Barkukiyeh. Having begged for quarter and surrendered, they
were immediately stripped nearly naked, and about fifty were
slaughtered on the spot; and about the same number were
dragged away. ... The wretched captives were then chained and
left in the court of the Pasha's house; and on the following
morning the heads of their comrades, who had perished the day
before, were skinned and stuffed with straw before their eyes.
{761}
One Bey and two other men paid their ransom, and were
released; the rest, without exception, were tortured, and put
to death in the course of the ensuing night. ... The Beys were
disheartened by this revolting butchery, and most of them
retired to the upper country. Urged by England, or more
probably by the promise of a bribe from El-Elfy, the Porte
began a leisurely interference in favour of the Memluks; but
the failure of El-Elfy's treasury, and a handsome bribe from
Mohammad 'Aly, soon changed the Sultan's views, and the
Turkish fleet sailed away. ... An attempt of the English
Government to restore the Memluks by the action of a force of
5,000 men under General Fraser ended in disaster and
humiliation, and the citizens of Cairo had the satisfaction of
seeing the heads of Englishmen exposed on stakes in the
Ezbekiyeh. Mohammad 'Aly now adopted a more conciliatory
policy towards the Memluks, granted them land, and encouraged
them to return to Cairo. The clemency was only assumed in
order to prepare the way for the act of consummate treachery
which finally uprooted the Memluk power. ... Early in the year
1811, the preparations for an expedition against the Wahhabis
in Arabia being complete, all the Memluk Beys then in Cairo
were invited to the ceremony of investing Mohammad 'Aly's
favourite son, Tusun, with a pelisse and the command of the
army. As on the former occasion, the unfortunate Memluks fell
into the snare. On the 1st of March, Shahin Bey and the other
chiefs (one only excepted) repaired with their retinues to the
citadel, and were courteously received by the Pasha. Having
taken coffee, they formed in procession, and, preceded and
followed by the Pasha's troops, slowly descended the steep and
narrow road leading to the great gate of the citadel; but as
soon as the Memluks arrived at the gate it was suddenly closed
before them. The last of those who made their exit before the
gate was shut were Albanians under Salih Kush. To those troops
their chief now made known the Pasha's orders to massacre all
the Memluks within the citadel; therefore having returned by
another way, they gained the summit of the walls and houses,
that hem in the road in which the Memluks were, and some
stationed themselves upon the eminences of the rock through
which that road is partly cut. Thus securely placed, they
commenced a heavy fire on their defenceless victims, and
immediately the troops who closed the procession, and who had
the advantage of higher ground, followed their example. ...
470 Memluks entered the citadel, and of these very few, if
any, escaped. One of these is said to have been a Bey.
According to some, he leaped his horse from the ramparts, and
alighted uninjured, though the horse was killed by the fall.
Others say that he was prevented from joining his comrades,
and discovered the treachery while waiting without the gate.
He fled and made his way to Syria. This massacre was the
signal for an indiscriminate slaughter of the Memluks
throughout Egypt, orders to this effect being transmitted to
every governor; and in Cairo itself, the houses of the Beys
were given over to the soldiery, who slaughtered all their
adherents, treated their women in the most shameless manner,
and sacked their dwellings. ... The last of his rivals being
now destroyed, Mohammad 'Aly was free to organize the
administration of the country, and to engage in expeditions
abroad."
S. Lane-Poole, Egypt, chapter 8.
ALSO IN:
A. A. Paton, History of the Egyptian Revolution,
volume 2.
EGYPT: A. D. 1807.
Occupation of Alexandria by the English.
Disastrous failure of their expedition.
See TURKS: A. D. 1806-1807.
EGYPT: A. D. 1831-1840.
Rebellion of Mehemet Ali.
Successes against the Turks.
Intervention of the Western Powers.
Egypt made an hereditary Pashalik.
See TURKS: A. D. 1831-1840.
EGYPT: A. D. 1840-1869.
Mehemet Ali and his successors.
The khedives.
The opening of the Suez Canal.
"By the treaty of 1840 between the Porte and the European
Powers, ... his title to Egypt having been ... affirmed ...
Mehemet Ali devoted himself during the next seven years to the
social and material improvement of the country, with an
aggregate of results which has fixed his place in history as
the 'Peter the Great' of Egypt. Indeed, except some additions
and further reforms made during the reign of his reputed
grandson, Ismail Pasha, the whole administrative system, up
till less than ten years ago, was, in the main, his work; and
notwithstanding many admitted defects, it was at his death
incomparably the most civilised and efficient of then existing
Mussulman Governments. In 1848, this great satrap, then
verging on his eightieth year, was attacked by a mental
malady, induced, as it was said, by a potion administered in
mistaken kindness by one of his own daughters, and the
government was taken over by his adopted son, Ibrahim Pasha,
the hero of Koniah and Nezib. He lingered till August 1849,
but Ibrahim had already pre-deceased him; and Abbas, a son of
the latter, succeeded to the viceregal throne. Though born and
bred in Egypt, Abbas was a Turk of the worst type--ignorant,
cowardly, sensual, fanatic, and opposed to reforms of every
sort. Thus his feeble reign of less than six years was, in
almost everything, a period of retrogression. On a night in
July, 1854, he was strangled in his sleep by a couple of his
own slaves,--acting, it was variously said, on a secret order
from Constantinople, or at the behest of one of his wives. To
Abbas succeeded Said, the third son of Mehemet Ali, an amiable
and liberal-minded prince who retrieved much of the mischief
done by his predecessor, but lacked the vigorous intelligence
and force of character required to carry on the great work
begun by his father. His reign will be chiefly memorable for
the concession and commencement of the Suez Canal, the
colossal work which, while benefiting the trade of the world,
has cost so much to Egypt. Said died in January 1863, and was
succeeded by his nephew Ismail Pasha, the second son of
Ibrahim. As most of the leading incidents of this Prince's
reign, as also the chief features of his character, are still
fresh in the public memory, I need merely recall a few of the
more salient of both. Amongst the former, history will give
the first place to his creation of the huge public debt which
forms the main element of a problem that still confronts
Europe.
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But, for this the same impartial judge will at least
equally blame the financial panderers who ministered to his
extravagance, with exorbitant profit to themselves, but at
ruinous cost to Egypt. On the other hand, it is but historical
justice to say that Ismail did much for the material progress
of the country. He added more than 1,000 to the 200 miles of
railway in existence at the death of Said. He greatly improved
the irrigation, and so increased the cultivable area of the
country; multiplied the primary schools, and encouraged native
industries. For so much, at least, history will give him
credit. As memorable, though less meritorious, were the
magnificent fetes with which, in 1869, he opened the Suez
Canal, the great work which England had so long opposed, but
through which--as if by the irony of history--the first ship
that passed flew the English flag, and to the present traffic
of which we contribute more than eighty per cent. In personal
character, Ismail was of exceptional intelligence, but cruel,
crafty, and untrustworthy both in politics and in his private
relations. ... It may be mentioned that Ismail Pasha was the
first of these Ottoman Viceroys who bore the title of
'Khedive,' which is a Perso-Arabic designation signifying rank
a shade less than regal. This he obtained in 1867 by heavy
bribes to the Sultan and his chief ministers, as he had the
year before by similar means ousted his brother and uncle from
the succession, and secured it for his own eldest son,--in
virtue of which the latter now [1890] nominally reigns."
J. C. M'Coan, Egypt (National Life and Thought,
lecture 18).
J. C. M'Coan, Egypt under Ismail, chapter 1-4.
EGYPT: A. D. 1870-1883.
Conquest of the Soudan.
Measures for the suppression of the slave-trade.
The government of General Gordon.
Advent of the Mahdi and beginning of his revolt.
In 1870, Ismail Pasha "made an appeal for European assistance
to strengthen him in completing the conquest of Central
Africa. [Sir Samuel] Baker was accordingly placed in command
of 1,200 men, supplied with cannon and steam-boats, and
received the title of Governour-General of the provinces which
he was commissioned to subdue. Having elected to make
Gondokoro the seat of his government, he changed its name to
Ismailia. He was not long in bringing the Bari to submission,
and then, advancing southwards, he came to the districts of
Dufilé and Fatiko, a healthy region endowed by nature with
fertile valleys and irrigated by limpid streams, but for years
past converted into a sort of hell upon earth by the
slave-hunters who had made it their headquarters. From these
pests Baker delivered the locality, and having by his tact and
energy overcome the distrust of the native rulers, he
established over their territory a certain number of small
military settlements. ... Baker returned to Europe flattering
himself with the delusion that he had put an end to the
scourge of slave dealing. It was true that various
slave-dealers' dens on the Upper Nile had been destroyed, a
number of outlaws had been shot, and a few thousand miserable
slaves had been set at liberty; but beyond that nothing had
been accomplished; no sooner had the liberator turned his back
than the odious traffic recommenced with more vigour than
before through the region south of Gondokoro. This, however,
was only one of the slave-hunting districts, and by no means
the worst. ... Under European compulsion ... the Khedive
Ismail undertook to promote measures to put a stop to the
scandal. He entered into various conventions with England on
the subject; and in order to convince the Powers of the
sincerity of his intentions, he consented to put the
equatorial provinces under the administration of an European
officer, who should be commissioned to carry on the work of
repression, conquest and organisation that had been commenced
by Baker. His choice fell upon a man of exceptional ability, a
brilliant officer trained at Woolwich, who had already gained
high renown in China, not only for military talent, but for
his adroitness and skill in negotiation and diplomacy. This
was Colonel Gordon, familiarly known as 'Chinese Gordon,' who
was now to add fresh lustre to his name in Egypt as Gordon
Pasha. Gordon was appointed Governour-General of the Soudan in
1874. With him were associated Chaillé-Long, an American
officer, who was chief of his staff; the German, Dr. Emin
Effendi, medical officer to the expedition; Lieutenants
Chippendall and Watson; Gessi and Kemp, engineers. ...
Thenceforward the territories, of which so little had hitherto
been known, became the continual scene of military movements
and scientific excursions. ... The Soudan was so far conquered
as to be held by about a dozen military outposts stationed
along the Nile from Lake No to Lakes Albert and Ibrahim. ...
In 1876 Gordon went back to Cairo. Nevertheless, although he
was wearied with the continual struggle of the past two years,
worn down by the incessant labours of internal organisation
and geographical investigations, disheartened, too, by the
jealousies, rivalries, and intrigues of all around him, and by
the ill feeling of the very people whom the Khedive's
Government had sent to support him, he consented to return
again to his post; this time with the title of
Governour-General of the Soudan, Darfur, and the Equatorial
Provinces. At the beginning of 1877 he took possession of the
Government palace at Khartoum. ... Egyptian authority, allied
with European civilisation, appeared now at length to be
taking some hold on the various districts, and the Cairo
Government might begin to look forward to a time when it could
reckon on some reward for its labours and sacrifices. The area
of the new Egyptian Soudan had now become immense.
Geographically, its centre included the entire valley of the
Nile proper, from Berber to the great lakes; on the east were
such portions of the valleys of the Blue Nile and Atbara as
lay outside Abyssinia; and on the west were the districts
watered by the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and the Bahr-el-Arab, right
away to the confines of Wadai. ... Unfortunately in 1879
Ismail Pasha was deposed, and, to the grievous loss of the
Soudan, Gordon was recalled. As the immediate consequence, the
country fell back into the hands of Turkish pashas; apathy,
disorder, carelessness, and ill feeling reappeared at
Khartoum, and the Arab slave-dealers, who had for a period
been kept under by Baker, Gessi, and Gordon, came once more to
the front. ... It was Raouf Pasha who, in 1879, succeeded
Gordon as Governour-General. He had three Europeans as his
subordinates--Emin Bey, who before Gordon left, had been
placed in charge of the province of the equator; Lupton Bey,
an Englishman, who had followed Gessi as Governour on the
Bahr-el-Ghazal; and Slatin Bey, an Austrian, in command of
Darfur. Raouf had barely been two years at Khartoum when the
Mahdi appeared on the scene.
{763}
Prompted either by personal ambition or by religious hatred,
the idea of playing the part of 'Mahdi' had been acted upon by
many an Arab fanatic [see MAHDI]. Such an idea, at an early
age, had taken possession of a certain Soudanese of low birth,
a native of Dongola, by name Mohammed Ahmed. Before openly
aspiring to the role of the regenerator of Islam he had filled
several subordinate engagements, notably one under Dr. Peney,
the French surgeon-general in the Soudan, who died in 1861.
Shortly afterwards he received admittance into the powerful
order of the Ghelani dervishes, and then commenced his schemes
for stirring up a revolution in defence of his creed. His
proceedings did not fail to attract the attention of Gessi
Pasha, who had him arrested at Shekka and imprisoned for five
months. Under the government of Raouf he took up his abode
upon the small island of Abba, on the Nile above Khartoum,
where he gained a considerable notoriety by the austerity of
his life and by the fervour of his devotions, thus gradually
gaining a high reputation for sanctity. Not only offerings but
followers streamed in from every quarter. He became rich as
well as powerful. ... Waiting till May 1881, he then assumed
that a propitious time had arrived for the realisation of his
plans, and accordingly had himself publicly proclaimed as
'Mahdi,' inviting every fakir and every religious leader of
Islam to come and join him at Abba. ... Convinced that it was
impolitic to tolerate any longer the revolutionary intrigues
of such an adventurer at the very gates of Khartoum, Raouf
Pasha resolved to rid the country of Mohammed and to send him
to Cairo for trial. An expedition was accordingly despatched
to the island of Abba, but unfortunately the means employed
were inadequate to the task. Only a small body of black
soldiers were sent to arrest the agitator in his quarters, and
they, inspired no doubt by a vague and superstitious dread of
a man who represented himself as the messenger of Allah,
wavered and acted with indecision. Before their officers could
rally them to energy, the Mahdi, with a fierce train of
followers, knife in hand, rushed upon them, and killing many,
put the rest to flight; then, seeing that a renewed assault
was likely to be made, he withdrew the insurgent band into a
retreat of safety amongst the mountains of Southern Kordofan.
Henceforth revolt was openly declared. Such was the condition
of things in August 1881. Chase was given, but every effort to
secure the person of the pretended prophet was baffled. A
further attempt was made to arrest him by the Mudir of Fashoda
with 1,500 men, only to be attended with a still more
melancholy result. After a desperate struggle the Mudir lay
stretched upon the ground, his soldiers murdered all around
him. One single officer, with a few straggling cavalry,
escaped the massacre, and returned to report the fatal news.
The reverse caused an absolute panic in Khartoum, an intense
excitement spreading throughout the Soudan.... Meantime the
Mahdi's prestige was ever on the increase, and he soon felt
sufficiently strong to assume the offensive. His troops
overran Kordofan and Sennar, advancing on the one hand to the
town of Sennar, which they set on fire, and on the other to
El-Obeid, which they placed in a state of siege. In the
following July a fresh and more powerful expedition, this time
numbering 6,000 men, under the command of Yussuf Pasha, left
Fashoda and made towards the Mahdi's headquarters. It met with
no better fate than the expeditions that had gone before. ...
And then it was that the English Government, discerning danger
for Egypt in this insurrection of Islam, set to work to act
for the Khedive. It told off 11,000 men, and placed them under
the command of Hicks Pasha, an officer in the Egyptian service
who had made the Abyssinian campaign. At the end of December
1882 this expedition embarked at Suez for Suakin, crossed the
desert, reached the Nile at Berber, and after much endurance
on the way, arrived at Khartoum. Before this, El-Obeid had
fallen into the Mahdi's power, and there he had taken up his
headquarters. Some trifling advantages were gained by Hicks,
but having entered Kordofan with the design of retaking
El-Obeid, he was, on the 5th of November 1883, hemmed in
amongst the Kasgil passes, and after three days' heroic
fighting, his army of about 10,000 men was overpowered by a
force five or six times their superior in numbers, and
completely exterminated. Hicks Pasha himself, his European
staff, and many Egyptian officers of high rank, were among the
dead, and forty-two guns fell into the hands of the enemy.
Again, not a man was left to carry the fatal tidings to
Khartoum. Rebellion continued to spread. After being agitated
for months, the population of the Eastern Soudan also made a
rising. Osman Digna, the foremost of the Mahdi's lieutenants,
occupied the road between Suakin and Berber, and surrounded
Sinkat and Tokar; then, having destroyed, one after another,
two Egyptian columns that had been despatched for the relief
of these towns, he finally cut off the communication between
Khartoum and the Red Sea. The tide of insurrection by this
time had risen so high that it threatened not only to
overthrow the Khedive's authority in the Soudan, but to become
the source of serious peril to Egypt itself."
A. J. Wauters, Stanley's Emin Pasha Expedition, chapter 1-2.
ALSO IN:
Major R. F. Wingate, Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan,
books 1-4.
Colonel Sir. W. F. Butler, Charles George Gordon,
chapters 5-6.
A. E. Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon, chapters 10-15.
EGYPT: A. D. 1875-1882.
Bankruptcy of the state.
English and French control of finances.
Native hostility to the foreigners.
Rebellion, led by Arabi.
English bombardment of Alexandria.
"The facilities given by foreign money-lenders encouraged
extravagance and ostentation on the part of the sovereign and
the ruling classes, while mismanagement and corrupt practices
were common among officials, so that the public debt rose in
1875 to ninety-one millions, and in January, 1881, to
ninety-eight millions. ... The European capitalists obtained
for their money nominally six to nine per cent., but really
not less than eight to ten per cent., as the bonds were issued
at low rates. ... The interest on these borrowed millions was
punctually paid up to the end of 1875, when the Khedive found
that he could not satisfy his creditors, and the British
government interfered in his favour. Mr. Cave was sent to
examine into Egyptian finances, and he reported that loans at
twelve and thirteen per cent. were being agreed to and renewed
at twenty-five per cent., and that some measure of
consolidation was necessary. The two western Powers now took
the matter in hand, but they thereby recognized the whole of
these usurious demands.
{764}
The debt, although under their control, and therefore
secured, was not reduced by the amount already paid in
premiums for risk. Nor was the rate of interest diminished to
something more nearly approaching the rate payable on English
consols, which was three per cent. A tribunal under the
jurisdiction of united European and native judges was also
established in Egypt to decide complaints of foreigners
against natives, and vice versa. In May, 1876, this tribunal
gave judgment that the income of the Khedive Ismail, from his
private landed property, could be appropriated to pay the
creditors of the state, and an execution was put into the
Viceregal palace, Er Ramleh, near Alexandria. The Khedive
pronounced the judgment invalid, and the tribunal ceased to
act. Two commissioners were now again sent to report on
Egyptian finances--M. Joubert, the director of the Paris Bank,
for France, and Mr. Goschen, a former minister, for England.
These gentlemen proposed to hand over the control of the
finances to two Europeans, depriving the state of all
independence and governing power. The Khedive, in order to
resist these demands, convoked a sort of Parliament in order
to make an appeal to the people. From this Parliament was
afterwards developed the Assembly of Notables, and the
National party, now so often spoken of. In 1877 a European
commission of control over Egyptian finance was named. ...
Nubar Pasha was made Prime minister in 1878; the control of
the finances was entrusted to Mr. Wilson, an Englishman; and
later, the French controller, M. de Blignières, entered the
Cabinet. Better order was thus restored to the finances.
Rothschild's new loan of eight and a half millions was issued
at seventy-three, and therefore brought in from six to eight
per cent. nett. ... But to be able to pay the creditors their
full interest, economy had to be introduced into the national
expenditure. To do this, clumsy arrangements were made, and
the injustice shown in carrying them out embittered many
classes of the population, and laid the foundations of a
fanatical hatred of race against race. ... In consequence of
all this, the majority of the notables, many ulemas, officers,
and higher officials among the Egyptians, formed themselves
into a National party, with the object of resisting the
oppressive government of the foreigner. They were joined by
the great mass of the discharged soldiers and subordinate
officials, not to mention many others. At the end of February,
1870, a revolt broke out in Cairo. Nubar, hated by the
National party, was dismissed by the Khedive Ismail, who
installed his son Tewfik as Prime minister. In consequence of
this, the coupons due in April were not paid till the
beginning of May, and the western Powers demanded the
reinstatement of Nubar. That Tewfik on this occasion retired
and sided with the foreigners is the chief cause of his
present [1882] unpopularity in Egypt. Ismail, however, now
dismissed Wilson and De Blignières, and a Cabinet was formed,
consisting chiefly of native Egyptians, with Sherif Pasha as
Prime minister. Sherif now raised for the first time the cry
of which we have since heard so much, and which was inscribed
by Arabi on his banners, 'Egypt for the Egyptians.' The
western Powers retorted by a menacing naval demonstration, and
demanded of the Sultan the deposition of the Khedive. In June,
1870, this demand was agreed to. Ismail went into exile, and
his place was filled br Mahomed Tewfik. ... The new Khedive,
with apathetic weakness, yielded the reconstruction of his
ministry and the organization of his finances to the western
Powers. Mr. Baring and M. de Blignières, as commissioners of
the control, aided by officials named by Rothschild to watch
over his private interests, now ruled the land. They devoted
forty-five millions (about sixteen shillings per head on the
entire population) to the payment of interest. The people were
embittered by the distrust shown towards them, and the further
reduction of the army from fifty to fifteen thousand men threw
a large number out of employment. ... Many acts of military
insubordination occurred, and at last, on the 8th of November,
1881, the great military revolt broke out in Cairo. ... Ahmed
Arabi, colonel of the 4th regiment, now first came into public
notice. Several regiments, headed by their officers, openly
rebelled against the orders of the Khedive, who was compelled
to recall the nationalist, Sherif Pasha, and to refer the
further demands of the rebels for the increase of the army,
and for a constitution, to the Sultan. Sherif Pasha, however,
did not long enjoy the confidence of the National Egyptian
party, at whose head Arabi now stood, winning every day more
reputation and influence. The army, in which he permitted
great laxity of discipline, was entirely devoted to him. ... A
pretended plot of Circassian officers against his life he
dexterously used to increase his popularity. ... Twenty-six
officers were condemned to death by court-martial, but the
Khedive, at the instance of the western Powers, commuted the
sentence, and they were banished to Constantinople. This
leniency was stigmatized by the National party as treachery to
the country, and the Chamber of Notables retorted by naming
Arabi commander-in-chief of the army and Prime minister
without asking the consent of the Khedive. The Chamber soon
afterwards came into conflict with the foreign comptrollers.
... This ended in De Blignières resigning his post, and in the
May of the present year (1882) the consuls of the European
Powers declared that a fleet of English and French ironclads
would appear before Alexandria, to demand the disbanding of
the army and the punishment of its leaders. The threat was
realized, and, in spite of protests from the Sultan, a fleet
of English and French ironclads entered the harbour of
Alexandria. The Khedive, at the advice of his ministers and
the chiefs of the National party, appealed to the Sultan. ...
The popular hatred of foreigners now became more and more
apparent, and began to assume threatening dimensions. ... On
the 30th of May, Arabi announced that a despatch from the
Sultan had reached him, promising the deposition of Tewfik in
favour of his uncle Halim Pasha. ... On the 3rd of June,
Dervish Pasha, a man of energy notwithstanding his years, had
sailed from Constantinople. ... His object was to pacify Egypt
and to reconcile Tewfik and Arabi Pasha. ... Since the
publication of the despatch purporting to proclaim Halim Pasha
as Khedive, Arabi had done nothing towards dethroning the
actual ruler. But on the 2nd of June he began to strengthen
the fortifications of Alexandria with earthworks. ...
{765}
The British admiral protested, and the Sultan, on the
remonstrances of British diplomacy, forbad the continuation of
the works. ... Serious disturbances took place in Alexandria
on the 11th. The native rabble invaded the European quarter,
plundered the shops, and slew many foreigners. ... Though the
disturbances were not renewed, a general emigration of
foreigners was the result. ... On the 22nd a commission,
consisting of nine natives and nine Europeans ... began to try
the ringleaders of the riot. ... But events were hurrying on
towards war. The works at Alexandria were recommenced, and the
fortifications armed with heavy guns. The English admiral
received information that the entrance to the harbour would be
blocked by sunken storeships, and this, he declared, would be
an act of open war. A complete scheme for the destruction of
the Suez canal was also discovered. ... The English, on their
side, now began to make hostile demonstrations; and Arabi,
while repudiating warlike intentions, declared himself ready
for resistance. ... On the 27th the English vice-consul
advised his fellow-countrymen to leave Alexandria, and on the
3rd of July, according to the 'Times,' the arrangements for
war were complete. ... Finally, as a reconnaissance on the 9th
showed that the forts were still being strengthened, he [the
English admiral] informed the governor of Alexandria, Zulficar
Pasha, that unless the forts had been previously evacuated and
surrendered to the English, he intended to commence the
bombardment at four the next morning. ... As the French
government were unable to take part in any active measures (a
grant for that purpose having been refused by the National
Assembly), the greater part of their fleet, under Admiral
Conrad, left Alexandria for Port Said. The ironclads of other
nations, more than fifty in number, anchored outside the
harbour of Alexandria. ... On the evening of the 10th of July
... and at daybreak on the 11th, the ... ironclads took up the
positions assigned to them. There was a gentle breeze from the
east, and the weather was clear. At 6.30 a. m. all the ships
were cleared for action. At seven the admiral signalled to the
Alexandra to fire a shell into Fort Ada. ... The first shot
fired from the Alexandra was immediately replied to by the
Egyptians; whereupon the ships of the whole fleet and the
Egyptian forts and batteries opened fire, and the engagement
became general. ... At 8.30 Fort Marsa-el-Kanat was blown up
by shells from the Invincible and Monarch, and by nine o'clock
the Téméraire, Monarch, and Penelope had silenced most of the
guns in Fort Meks, although four defied every effort from
their protected situation. By 11.45 Forts Marabout and Adjemi
had ceased firing, and a landing party of seamen and marines
was despatched, under cover of the Bittern's guns, to spike
and blow up the guns in the forts. At 1.30 a shell from the
Superb burst in the chief powder magazine of Fort Ada and blew
it up. By four o'clock all the guns of Fort Pharos, and half
an hour later those of Fort Meks, were disabled, and at 5.30
the admiral ordered the firing to cease. The ships were
repeatedly struck and sustained some damage. ... The English
casualties were five killed and twenty-eight wounded, a
comparatively small loss. The Egyptian loss is not known. ...
At 1 p. m. on the 12th of July, the white flag was hoisted by
the Egyptians. Admiral Seymour demanded, as a preliminary
measure, the surrender of the forts commanding the entrance to
the harbour, and the negotiations on this point were
fruitlessly protracted for some hours. As night approached the
city was seen to be on fire in many places, and the flames
were spreading in all directions. The English now became aware
that the white flag had merely been used as means to gain time
for a hasty evacuation of Alexandria by Arabi and his army.
Sailors and marines were now landed, and ships of other
nations sent detachments on shore to protect their countrymen.
But it was too late; Bedouins, convicts, and ill-disciplined
soldiers had plundered and burnt the European quarter, killed
many foreigners, and a Reuter's telegram of the 14th said,
'Alexandria is completely destroyed.'"
H. Vogt, The Egyptian War of 1882, pages 2-32.
ALSO IN:
J. C. McCoan, Egypt under Ismail, chapter 8-10.
C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, volume 1, chapter 1-20.
Khedives and Pashas.
C. F. Goodrich, Report on British Military and Naval
Operations in Egypt, 1882, part 1.
EGYPT: A. D. 1882-1883.
The massacre and destruction in Alexandria.
Declared rebellion of Arabi.
Its suppression by the English.
Banishment of Arabi.
English occupation.
The city of Alexandria had become "such a scene of pillage,
massacre, and wanton destruction as to make the world shudder.
It was the old tale of horrors. Houses were plundered and
burned; the European quarter, including the stately buildings
surrounding the Great Square of Mehemet Ali, was sacked and
left a heap of smoldering ruins; and more than two thousand
Europeans, for the most part Levantines, were massacred with
all the cruelty of oriental fanaticism. This was on the
afternoon of the 12th. It was the second massacre that had
occurred under the very eyes of the British fleet. The
admiral's failure to prevent it has been called unfortunate by
some and criminal by others. It seems to have been wholly
without excuse. ... The blue-jackets were landed on the 13th,
and cleared the way before them with a Gatling gun. The next
day, more ships having arrived, a sufficient force was landed
to take possession of the entire city. The khedive was
escorted back to Ras-el-Tin from Ramleh, and given a strong
guard. Summary justice was dealt out to all hostile Arabs who
had been captured in the city. In short, English intervention
was followed by English occupation. The bombardment of
Alexandria had defined clearly the respective positions of
Arabi and the khedive toward Egypt and the Egyptian people.
... The khedive was not only weak in the eyes of his people,
but he was regarded as the tool of England. ... From the
moment the first shot was fired upon Alexandria, Arabi was the
real ruler of the people. ... The conference at Constantinople
was stirred by the news of the bombardment of Alexandria. It
presented a note to the Porte, July 15, requesting the
dispatch of Turkish troops to restore the status quo in Egypt.
But the sultan had no idea of taking the part of the Christian
in what all Islam regarded as a contest between the Moslem and
the unbeliever. ... In Egypt, the khedive had been prevailed
upon, after some demur, to proclaim Arabi a rebel and
discharge him from his cabinet. Arabi had issued a
counter-proclamation, on the same day, declaring Tewfik a
traitor to his people and his religion.
{766}
Having received the news of the khedive's proclamation, Lord
Dufferin, the British ambassador at Constantinople, announced
to the conference that England was about to send an expedition
to Egypt to suppress the rebellion and to restore the
authority of the khedive. Thereupon the sultan declared that
he had decided to send a Turkish expedition. Lord Dufferin
feigned to accept the sultan's cooperation, but demanded that
the Porte, as a preliminary step, should declare Arabi a
rebel. Again the sultan was confronted with the danger of
incurring the wrath of the Moslem world. He could not declare
Arabi a rebel. ... In his desperation, he sent a force of
3,000 men to Suda bay with orders to hold themselves in
readiness to enter Egypt at a moment's notice. ... In the
meantime, however, the English expedition had arrived in Egypt
and was proceeding to crush the rebellion, regardless of the
diplomatic delays and bickerings at Constantinople. ... It was
not until the 15th of August that Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived
with his force in Egypt. The English at that time held only
two points, Alexandria and Suez, while the entire Egyptian
interior, as well as Port Said and Ismailia, were held by
Arabi, whose force, it was estimated, now amounted to about
70,000 men, of whom at least 50,000 were regulars. The
objective point of General Wolseley's expedition to crush
Arabi was, of course, the city of Cairo. There were two ways
of approaching that city, one from Alexandria, through the
Delta, and the other from the Suez canal. There were many
objections to the former route. ... The Suez canal was
supposed to be neutral water. ... But England felt no
obligation to recognize any neutrality, ... acting upon the
principle, which is doubtless sound, that 'the neutrality of
any canal joining the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans will be maintained, if at all, by the nation which can
place and keep the strongest ships at each extremity.' In
other words, General Wolseley decided to enter Cairo by way of
the Suez canal and Ismailia. But he kept his plan a profound
secret. Admiral Seymour alone knew his purpose. ... On the
19th, the transports moved eastward from Alexandria, as if to
attack Abukir; but under the cover of darkness that night,
they were escorted on to Port Said, where they learned that
the entire canal, owing to the preconcerted action of Admiral
Seymour, was in the hands of the British. On the 21st, the
troops met Sir Henry McPherson's Indian contingent at
Ismailia. Two days were now consumed in rest and preparation.
The Egyptians cut off the water supply, which came from the
Delta by the Sweet Water Canal, by damming the canal. A sortie
to secure possession of the dam was therefore deemed
necessary, and was successfully made on the 24th. Further
advances were made, and on the 26th, Kassassin, a station of
some importance on the canal and railway, was occupied. Here
the British force was obliged to delay for two weeks, while
organizing a hospital and a transport service. This gave Arabi
opportunity to concentrate his forces at Zagazig and
Tel-el-Kebir. But he knew it was for his interest to strike at
once before the British transports could come up with the
advance. He therefore made two attempts, one on August 28, and
the other on September 9, to regain the position lost at
Kassassin. But he failed in both, though inflicting some loss
upon his opponents. On the 12th of September preparations were
made by General Wolseley for a decisive battle. He had become
convinced from daily reconnoissance and from the view obtained
in the engagement of September 9, that the fortifications at
Tel-el-Kebir were both extensive and formidable. ... It was
therefore decided to make the approach under cover of
darkness. ... At 1.30 on the morning of the 13th General
Wolseley gave the order for the advance, his force consisting

of about 11,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalrymen, and sixty
field-guns. They had only the stars to guide them, but so
accurately was the movement conducted that the leading
brigades of each division reached the enemy's outposts within
two minutes of each other. 'The enemy (says General Wolseley)
were completely surprised, and it was not until one or two of
their advanced sentries fired their rifles that they realized
our close proximity to their works.' ... The intrenchments
were not carried without a severe struggle. The Egyptians
fought with a desperate courage and hundreds of them were
bayoneted at their posts. ... But what could the rank and file
accomplish when 'each officer knew that he would run, but
hoped his neighbor would stay.' At the first shot Arabi and
his second in command took horse and galloped to Belbeis,
where they caught a train for Cairo. Most of the other
officers, as the reports of killed and wounded show, did the
same. The Egyptians fired their first shot at 4.55 A. M., and
at 6.45 the English had possession of Arabi's headquarters and
the canal bridge. The British loss was 57 killed, 380 wounded,
and 22 missing. The Egyptian army left about 2,000 dead in the
fortifications. ... A proof of the completeness of the success
was the entire dissipation of Arabi's army. Groups of
soldiers, it is true, were scattered to different parts of
Egypt; but the army organization was completely broken up with
the battle of Tel-el-Kebir. ... 'Major-General Lowe was
ordered to push on with all possible speed to Cairo. ...
General Lowe [reached] the great barracks of Abbassieh, just
outside of Cairo, at 4.45 P. M., on the 14th instant. The
cavalry marched sixty-five miles in these two days. ... A
message was sent to Arabi Pasha through the prefect of the
city, calling upon him to surrender forthwith, which he did
unconditionally.' ... Before leaving England, Wolseley had
predicted that he would enter Cairo on the 16th of September;
but with still a day to spare the feat was accomplished, and
Arabi's rebellion was completely crushed. England now stood
alone. Victory had been won without the aid of France or the
intervention of Turkey. In Constantinople negotiations
regarding Turkish expeditions were still pending when Lord
Dufferin received the news of Wolseley's success, and
announced to the Porte that there was now no need of a Turkish
force in Egypt, as the war was ended. France at once prepared
to resume her share in the control; but England, having borne
the sole burden of the war, did not propose now to share the
influence her success had given her. And it was for the
interest of Egypt that she should not. ... England's first
duty, after quiet was assured, was to send away all the
British troops except a force of about 11,000 men, which it
was deemed advisable to retain in Egypt until the khedive's
authority was placed on a safe footing throughout the land. ...
{767}
What should be done with Arabi was the question of paramount
interest, when once the khedive's authority was re-established
and recognized. Tewfik and his ministers, if left to
themselves, would unquestionably have taken his life. ... But
England was determined that Arabi should have a fair trial.
... It was decided that the rebel leaders should appear before
a military tribunal, and they were given English counsel to
plead their cause. ... The trial was a farce. Everything was
'cut and dried' beforehand. It was arranged that Arabi was to
plead guilty to rebellion, that he was forthwith to be
condemned to death by the court, and that the khedive was
immediately to commute the sentence to perpetual exile. In
fact, the necessary papers were drawn up and signed before the
court met for Arabi's trial on December 3. ... On the 26th of
December Arabi and his six companions ... upon whom the same
sentence had been passed, left Cairo for the Island of Ceylon,
there to spend their life of perpetual exile. ... Lord
Dufferin ... had been sent from Constantinople to Cairo, early
in November, with the special mission of bringing order out of
governmental chaos. In two months he had prepared a scheme of
legislative reorganization. This was, however, somewhat
altered; so that it was not until May, 1883, that the plan in
its improved form was accepted by the decree of the khedive.
The new constitution provided for three classes of assemblies:
the 'Legislative' Council,' the 'General Assembly,' and the
'Provincial Councils,' of which there were to be fourteen, one
for each province. ... Every Egyptian man, over twenty years
of age, was to vote (by ballot) for an 'elector-delegate' from
the village in the neighborhood of which he lived, and the
'electors-delegate' from all the villages in a province were
to form the constituency that should elect the provincial
council. ... The scheme for reorganization was carried forward
to the extent of electing the 'electors-delegate' in
September; but by that time Egypt was again in a state of such
disquietude that the British advisers of the khedive
considered it unwise to put the new institutions into
operation. In place of legislative council and general
assembly, the khedive appointed a council of state, consisting
of eleven Egyptians, two Armenians, and ten Europeans. The
reforms were set aside for the time being in view of impending
troubles and dangers in the Sudan."
J. E. Bowen, The Conflict of East and West
in Egypt, chapter 5-6.
ALSO IN:
Colonel J. F. Maurice, Military History of
the Campaign of 1882 in Egypt.
C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, volume 1, chapter 22-44.
EGYPT: A. D. 1884-1885.
General Gordon's Mission to Khartoum.
The town beleaguered by the Mahdists.
English rescue expedition.
The energy that was too late.
"The abandonment of the Soudan being decided upon, the British
Government confided to General Gordon the task of extricating
the Egyptian garrisons scattered throughout the country. ...
Gordon's original instructions were dated the 18th January,
1884. He was to proceed at once to Egypt, to report on the
military situation in the Soudan, and on the measures which it
might be advisable to take for the security of the Egyptian
garrisons and for the safety of the European population in
Khartoum. ... He was to be accompanied by Colonel Stewart. ...
Gordon's final instructions were given him by the Egyptian
Government in a firman appointing him Governor-General. ...
Gordon arrived at Khartoum on the 18th February. ... While
Gordon was sending almost daily expressions of his view as to
the only way of carrying out the policy of eventual
evacuation, it was also becoming clear to him that he would
very soon be cut off from the rest of Egypt. His first remark
on this subject was to express 'the conviction that I shall be
caught in Khartoum'; and he wrote,--'Even if I was mean enough
to escape I have no power to do so.' The accuracy of this
forecast was speedily demonstrated. Within a few days
communications with Khartoum were interrupted, and although
subsequently restored for a time, the rising of the riparian
tribes rendered the receipt and despatch of messages
exceedingly uncertain. ... Long before the summer of 1884, it
was evident that the position of Gordon at Khartoum had become
so critical, that if he were to be rescued at all, it could
only be by the despatch of a British force. ... Early in May,
war preparations were commenced in England, and on the 10th of
the month the military authorities in Cairo received
instructions to prepare for the despatch in October of an
expedition for the relief of the Soudanese capital. 12,000
camels were ordered to be purchased and held in readiness for
a forward march in the autumn. On the 16th May a
half-battalion of English troops was moved up the Nile to Wady
Halfa. A few weeks later some other positions on the Nile were
occupied by portions of the Army of Occupation. Naval officers
were also sent up the river to examine and report upon the
cataracts and other impediments to navigation. Still it was
not till the 5th August that Mr. Gladstone rose in the House
of Commons to move a vote of credit of £300,000 to enable the
Government to undertake operations for the relief of Gordon.
... It was agreed that there were but two routes by which
Khartoum could be approached by an expedition. One by way of
the Nile, and the other via Souakim and Berber. ... The Nile
route having been decided on, preparations on a large scale
were begun. ... It was at first arranged that not more than
5,000 men should form the Expedition, but later on the number
was raised to 7,000. ... The instructions given to Lord
Wolseley stated that the primary object of the Expedition was
to bring away Gordon and Stewart from Khartoum; and when that
purpose should be effected, no further offensive operations of
any kind were to be undertaken."
C. Royle, The Egyptian Campaigns, 1882-1885,
volume 2, chapter 12-18.
"First, it was said that our troops would be before the gates
of Khartoum on January 14th; next it was the middle of
February; and then the time stretched out to the middle of
March. ... Lord Wolseley offered a hundred pounds to the
regiment covering the distance from Sarras to Debbeh most
expeditiously and with least damage to boats. ... He also
dispatched Sir Herbert Stewart on the immortal march to
Gakdul. Stewart's force, composed principally of the Mounted
Infantry and Camel Corps, and led by a troop of the 19th
Hussars, acting as scouts--numbering about 1,100 in all--set
out from Korti on December 30th. Its destination was about 100
miles from headquarters, and about 80 from the Nile at Shendy.
{768}
The enterprise, difficult and desperate as it was, was
achieved with perfect success. ... On the 17th January Sir
Herbert Stewart engaged the enemy on the road to Metemneh, and
after defeating some 10,000 Arabs--collected from Berber,
Metemneh, and Omdurman--pushed forward to the Abu Klea Wells.
His tactics were much the same as those of General Graham at
Elteb, and those of the Mahdi's men--of attacking when thirst
and fatigue had well-nigh prostrated the force--were at all
points similar to those adopted against Hicks. Our losses were
65 non-commissioned officers and men killed and 85 wounded,
with 9 officers killed--among them Colonel Burnaby--and 9
wounded. Stewart at once pushed on for Metemneh and the Nile.
He left the Wells on the 18th January to occupy Metemneh, if
possible, but, failing that, to make for the Nile and entrench
himself. After a night's march, some five miles south of
Metemneh, the column found itself in presence of an enemy said
to have been about 18,000 strong. Stewart halted and formed a
zareba under a deadly fire. He himself was mortally hurt in
the groin, and Mr. Cameron, of the Standard, and Mr. Herbert,
of the Morning Post, were killed. The zareba completed, the
column advanced in square, and the Arabs, profiting by Abu
Klea, moved forward in echelon, apparently with the purpose of
charging. At thirty yards or so they were brought to bay, so
terrific was the fire from the square, and so splendidly
served was Norton's artillery. For two hours the battle raged;
and then the Arabs, 'mown down in heaps,' gave way. Meantime
Sir Charles Wilson had made a dash for the Nile, where he
found steamers and reinforcements from Gordon, and the laconic
message, 'An right at Khartoum. Can hold out for years.' ...
In the joy at the good news, none had stopped to consider the
true meaning of the message, 'All right. Can hold out for
years,' for none was aware that nearly two months before
Gordon had said he had just provisions enough for 40 days, and
that what he really meant was that he had come to his last
biscuit. The message--which was written for the enemy--was
dated December 20, and Sir Charles Wilson would reach Khartoum on
January 28, just a month after its despatch. ... The public,
carefully kept in ignorance ... and hopeful beyond their wont,
were simply stupefied to hear, on February 5, that Khartoum was in
the hands of the Mahdi and Gordon captured or dead."
A. E. Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon,
volume 2, chapter 10.
ALSO IN:
H. M. Stanley, In Darkest Africa, chapter 1.
Colonel H. E. Colvile, History of the Soudan Campaign.
Colonel C. W. Wilson, From Korti to Khartoum.
Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, The Campaign of the Cataracts.
W. M. Pimblett, The Story of the Soudan War.
Gen. C. G. Gordon, Journals at Khartoum.
H. W. Gordon, Events in the Life of
Charles George Gordon, chapter 14-20.
EGYPT: A. D. 1893.
The reigning khedive.
Mohamed Tewfik died in January, 1802 and was succeeded by his
son Abbas, born in 1874.
Statesman's Year-book, 1893.
----------EGYPT: End----------
EGYPTIAN EDUCATION.
See EDUCATION, ANCIENT.
EGYPTIAN TALENT.
See TALENT.
EIDGENOSSEN.
The German word Eidgenossen, signifying "confederates," is
often used in a special sense, historically, as applied to the
members of the Swiss Confederation/
See SWITZERLAND: THE THREE FOREST CANTONS.
The name of the Huguenots is believed by some writers to be a
corruption of the same term.
EIGHT SAINTS OF WAR, The.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1375-1378.
EIKON BASILIKE, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1649 (FEBRUARY).
EION, Siege and capture of (B. C. 470).
See ATHENS: B. C. 470-466.
EIRE.
See IRELAND: THE NAME.
EKKLESIA.
See ECCLESIA.
EKOWE, Defence of (1879).
See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1877-1870.
ELAGABALUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 218-222.
ELAM.
"Genesis calls a tribe dwelling on the Lower Tigris, between
the river and the mountains of Iran, the Elamites, the oldest
son of Shem. Among the Greeks the land of the Elamites was
known as Kissia [Cissia], and afterwards as Susiana, from the
name of the capital. It was also called Elymais."
M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 2, chapter 1.
About 2300 B. C. Chaldea, or Babylonia, was overwhelmed by an
Elamite invasion--an invasion recorded by king Asshurbanipal,
and which is stated to have laid waste the land of Accad and
desecrated its temples. "Nor was this a passing inroad or raid
of booty-seeking mountaineers. It was a real conquest.
Khudur-Nankhundi and his successors remained in Southern
Chaldea. ... This is the first time we meet authentic
monumental records of a country which was destined through the
next sixteen centuries to be in continual contact, mostly
hostile, with both Babylonia and her northern rival, Assyria,
until its final annihilation by the latter [B. C. 649, under
Asshurbanipal, the Sardanapulus of the Greeks, who reduced the
whole country to a wilderness]. Its capital was Shushan
(afterwards pronounced by foreigners Susa), and its own
original name Shushinak. Its people were of Turanian stock,
its language was nearly akin to that of Shumir and Accad. ...
Elam, the name under which the country is best known, both
from the Bible and later monuments, is a Turanian word, which
means, like 'Accad,' 'Highlands.' ... One of
Khudur-Nankhundi's next successors, Khudur-Lagamar, was not
content with the addition of Chaldea to his kingdom of Elam.
He had the ambition of a born conqueror, and the generalship
of one. The Chapter xiv, of Genesis--which calls him
Chedorlaomer--is the only document we have descriptive of this
king's warlike career, and a very striking picture it gives of
it, ... Khudur-Lagamar ... lived, according to the most
probable calculations, about 2200 B. C."
Z. A. Ragozin, Story of Chaldea, chapter 4.
It is among the discoveries of recent times, derived from the
records in clay unearthed in Babylonia, that Cyrus the Great
was originally king of Elam, and acquired Persia, as he
acquired his later dominions, by conquest.
See PERSIA, B. C. 549-521.
See, also, BABYLONIA.
EL ARISH, Treaty of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1800 (JANUARY-JUNE).
ELBA: A. D. 1735.
Ceded to Spain by Austria.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.
ELBA: A. D. 1802.
Annexation to France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1802 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
ELBA: A. D. 1814.
Napoleon in exile.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (MARCH-APRIL),
and (APRIL-JUNE).
{i}
APPENDIX A.
NOTES TO ETHNOGRAPHICAL MAP, PLACED AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS VOLUME.
To the eye of modern scholarship "language" forms the basis of
every ethnic distinction. Physical and exterior features like the
stature, the color of the skin, the diversity of habits and
customs, the distinctions which once formed in great part the
basis of ethnic research have all in our own day been relegated
to a subordinate place.
The "language" test is of course subject to very serious
limitations. The intermingling of different peoples, more general
to be sure in our own day than in past ages, has nevertheless
been sufficiently great in every age to make the tracing of
linguistic forms a task of great difficulty. In special cases
where both the civilization and language of one people have
become lost in that of another the test must of course fail
utterly.
With all these restrictions however the adoption of the
linguistic method by modern criticism has been practically
universal. Its defence, if it requires any, is apparent. It is
the only method of ethnic study the deductions of which, where
successful at all, approach anything like certainty. The points
wherein linguistic criticism has failed have been freely
admitted; on the other hand the facts which it has established
are unassailable by any other school of criticism.
Taking language then as the only tangible working basis the
subject resolves itself from the start into a two-fold division:
the debatable and the certain. It is the purpose to indicate in
the course of these notes, what is merely conjecture and what may
be safely accepted as fact.
The ethnology of Europe, studied on this basis, has for its
central feature the Indo-Germanic (Indo-European)
or Aryan race. The distinction between the races clearly
Aryan and those doubtful or non-Aryan forms the primary division
of the subject. As the map is intended to deal only with the
Europe of the present, a historical distinction must be made at
the outset between the doubtful or non-Aryan peoples who preceded
the Aryans and the non-Aryan peoples who have appeared in Europe
in comparatively recent times. The simple formula, pre-Aryan,
Aryan, non-Aryan, affords the key to the historical
development of European ethnology.
PRE-ARYAN PEOPLES.
Of the presumably pre-Aryan peoples of western Europe the
Iberians occupy easily the first place. The seat of this
people at the dawn of history was in Spain and southern France;
their ethnology belongs entirely to the realm of conjecture. They
are of much darker complexion than the Aryans and their racial
characteristic is conservatism even to stubbornness, which places
them in marked contrast to their immediate Aryan neighbors, the
volatile Celts. Among the speculations concerning the origin of
the Iberians a plausible one is that of Dr. Bodichon, who assigns
to them an African origin making them, indeed, cognate with the
modern Berbers (see R. H. Patterson's "Ethnology of Europe" in
"Lectures on History and Art"). This generalization is made to
include also the Bretons of the north west. It is clear
however that the population of modern Brittany is purely Celtic:
made up largely from the immigrations from the British Isles
during the fifth century.
To the stubbornness with which the Iberians resisted every
foreign aggression and refused intermingling with surrounding
races is due the survival to the present day of their
descendants, the Basques.
The mountain ranges of northern Spain, the Cantabrians and
Eastern Pyrenees have formed the very donjon-keep of this people
in every age. Here the Cantabri successfully resisted the
Roman arms for more than a century after the subjugation of the
remainder of Spain, the final conquest not occurring until the
last years of Augustus. While the Iberian race as a whole
has become lost in the greater mass of Celtic and Latin
intruders, it has remained almost pure in this quarter. The
present seat of the Basques is in the Spanish provinces of
Viscaya, Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Navarre and in the French
department of Basses Pyrénées. The Ivernians of Ireland, now lost
in the Celtic population, and the Ligurians along the shores of
the Genoese gulf, later absorbed by the Romans, both belong
likewise to this pre-Aryan class. (Modern research concerning
these pre-Aryan peoples has in large part taken its inspiration
from the "Untersuchungen" of Humboldt, whose view concerning the
connection between the Basques and Iberians is substantially the
one stated.)
Another early non-Aryan race now extinct were the Etruscans of
Italy. Their origin was manifestly different from that of the
pre-Aryan peoples just mentioned. By many they have been regarded
as a branch of the great Ural-Altaic family. This again is
conjecture.
ARYAN PEOPLES.
In beginning the survey of the Aryan peoples it is necessary to
mention the principal divisions of the race. As generally
enumerated there are seven of these, viz., the Sanskrit(Hindoo), Zend (Persian), Greek, Latin, Celtic,
Germanic and Slavic. To these may be added two others
not definitely classified, the Albanian and the
Lithuanian. These bear the closest affinity respectively
to the Latin and the Slavic.
Speculation concerning the origin of the Aryans need not concern
us. It belongs as yet entirely to the arena of controversy. The
vital question which divides the opposing schools is concerning
their European or Asiatic origin. Of the numerous writers on this
subject the two who perhaps afford the reader of English the best
view of the opposing opinions are, on the Asiatic side, Dr. Max
Müller (Lectures on the Science of Language); on the other, Professor
A. H. Sayce (Introduction to the Science of Language).
{ii}
Of the divisions of the Aryan race above enumerated the first two
do not appear in European ethnology. Of the other branches, the
Latin, Germanic and Slavic form by great
odds the bulk of the European population.
THE LATIN BRANCH.
The Latin countries are France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and
the territory north of the Danube, between the Dniester and the
Theiss. In the strictest ethnic sense however the term Latin can
be applied only to Italy and then only to the central part. As
Italy first appears in history it is inhabited by a number of
different races: the Iapygians and Oenotrians of
the south who were thrown in direct contact with the Greek
settlers; the Umbrians, Sabines, Latins, Volscians and
Oscans in the centre; the Etruscans on the west
shore north of the Tiber; while in the north we find the
Gauls in the valley of the Po, with the Liguriansand Venetians respectively on the west and east coasts. Of
this motley collection the central group bore a close affinity to
the Latin, yet all alike received the Latin stamp with the
growing power of Rome.
The ethnic complexion of Italy thus formed was hardly modified by
the great Germanic invasions which followed with the fall of the
West-Roman Empire.
This observation applies with more or less truth to all the Latin
countries, the Germanic conquerors becoming everywhere merged and
finally lost in the greater mass of the conquered. Only in
Lombardy where a more enduring Germanic kingdom existed for over
two centuries (568-774), has the Germanic made any impression,
and this indeed a slight one, on the distinctly Latin character
of the Italian peninsula.
In Spain an interval between the Iberian period and the Roman
conquest appears to have existed, during which the population is
best described as Celt-Iberian. Upon this population the
Latin stamp was placed by the long and toilsome, but for that
reason more thorough, Roman conquest. The ethnic character of
Spain thus formed has passed without material change through the
ordeal both of Germanic and Saracenic conquest. The Gothickingdom of Spain (418-714) and the Suevic kingdom of
northern Portugal (406-584) have left behind them scarcely a
trace. The effects of the great Mohammedan invasion cannot be
dismissed so lightly.
Conquered entirely by the Arabs and Moors in 714, the entire
country was not freed from the invader for nearly eight
centuries. In the south (Granada) where the Moors clung longest
their influence has been greatest. Here their impress on the pure
Aryan stock has never been effaced.
The opening phrase of Cæsar's Gallic war, "all Gaul is divided
into three parts," states a fact as truly ethnic as it is
geographical or historical. In the south (Aquitania) we find the
Celtic blending with the Iberian; in the northeast the
Cimbrian Belgae, the last comers of the Celtic family, are
strongly marked by the characteristics of the Germans; while in
the vast central territory the people "calling themselves Galli"
are of pure Celtic race. This brief statement of Caesar, allowing
for the subsequent influx of the German, is no mean description
of the ethnic divisions of France as they exist at the present
day, and is an evidence of the remarkable continuity of
ethnological as opposed to mere political conditions.
The four and a half centuries of Roman rule placed the Latin
stamp on the Gallic nation, a preparation for the most determined
siege of Germanic race influence which any Latin nation was fated
to undergo.
In Italy and Spain the exotic kingdoms were quickly overthrown;
the Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul was in strictness
never overthrown at all.
In addition we soon have in the extreme north a second Germanic
element in the Scandinavian Norman. Over all these outside
elements, however, the Latin influence eventually triumphed.
While the Franks have imposed their name upon the natives,
the latter have imposed their language and civilization on the
invaders.
The result of this clashing of influences is seen, however, in
the present linguistic division of the old Gallic lands. The line
running east and west through the centre of France marks the
division between the French and the Provençal dialects,
the langued'oil and the langued'oc. It is south of
this line in the country of the langued'oc that the Latin
or Romance influence reigns most absolute in the native speech.
In the northeast, on the other hand, in the Walloonprovinces of Belgium, we have, as with the Belgae of classic
times, the near approach of the Gallic to the Germanic stems.
Our survey of the Latin peoples must close with a short notice of
its outlying members in the Balkan and Danubian lands. The
Albanians (Skipetars) and the Roumans(Vlachs or Wallachs) represent as nearly as
ethnology can determine the ancient populations respectively of
Illyricum and Thrace. The ethnology of the Albanians is entirely
uncertain. Their present location, considerably to the south of
their supposed pristine seat in Illyricum, indicates some
southern migration of the race. This migration occurred at an
entirely unknown time, though it is generally believed to have
been contemporary with the great southward movement of the Slavic
races in the seventh century.
The Albanian migrations of the time penetrated Attica,
Aetolia and the entire Peloponnesus; with the Slavs and
Vlachs they formed indeed a great part of the population
of Greece during the Middle Ages. While the Slavic stems have
since been merged in the native Greek population, and the
Vlachs have almost entirely disappeared from these
southern lands, the Albanians in Greece have shown a greater
tenacity. Their part in later Greek history has been a prominent
one and they form to-day a great part of the population of Attica
and Argolis.
The Roumans or Vlachs, the supposed native
population of Thrace, are more closely identified than the
Albanians with the other Latin peoples. They occupy at present
the vast country north of the Danube, their boundary extending on
the east to the Dniester, on the west almost to the Theiss.
Historically these people form a perplexing yet interesting
study. The theory once general that they represented a continuous
Latin civilization north of the Danube, connecting the classic
Dacia by an unbroken chain to the present, has now been generally
abandoned. (See Roesler's "Romänische Studien" or Freeman's
"Historical Geography of Europe," page 435.)
{iii}
The present geographical location of the Vlach peoples is
probably the result of a migration from the Thracian lands south
of the Danube, which occurred for unexplained causes in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The kernel of the race at the
present day is the separate state of Roumania; in the East and
West they come under the respective rules of Russia and Hungary.
In mediaeval times the part played by them south of the Balkans
was an important one, and to this day they still linger in
considerable numbers on either side of the range of Pindus. (For
a short dissertation on the Vlach peoples, see Finlay, "History
of Greece," volume 3, pages 224-230.)
THE GERMANIC BRANCH.
The Germanic nations of modern Europe are England,
Germany, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The
Germanic races also form the major part of the population of
Switzerland, the Cis-Leithan division of the Austrian Empire, and
appear in isolated settlements throughout Hungary and Russia.
Of the earlier Germanic nations who overthrew the Roman Empire of
the West scarcely a trace remains.
The population of the British Isles at the dawn of history
furnishes a close parallel to that of Gaul. The pre-Aryan
Ivernians (the possible Iberians of the British
Isles) had been forced back into the recesses of Scotland and
Ireland; next to them came the Celts, like those of Gaul, in two
divisions, the Goidels or Gaels and the
Britons.
In Britain, contrary to the usual rule, the Roman domination did
not give the perpetual Latin stamp to the island; it is in fact
the only country save the Pannonian and Rhaetian lands south of
the upper Danube, once a Roman possession, where the Germanic
element has since gained a complete mastery. The invasion of the
Germanic races, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, from
the sixth to the eighth centuries, were practically wars of
extermination. The Celtic race is to-day represented on the
British Isles only in Wales and the western portions of
Scotland and Ireland. The invasions of the
Danes, and later the Norman conquest, bringing with
them only slight infusions of kindred Germanic nations, have
produced in England no marked modification of the Saxonstock.
The German Empire, with the smaller adjoining realms,
Holland and Switzerland and the Austrian provinces of Austria,
Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol, contain the great mass of
the Germanic peoples of the continent.
During the confusion following the overthrow of the West-Roman
Empire the Germanic peoples were grouped much further
westward than they are at present; the eastward reaction
involving the dispossession of the Slavic peoples on the
Elbe and Oder, has been going on ever since the days of
Charlemagne. Germany like France possesses a linguistic division,
Low German (Nieder-Deutsche) being generally spoken in the lands
north of the cross line, High German (Hoch-Deutsche) from which
the written language is derived, to the south of it, Holland uses
the Flemish, a form of the Nieder-Deutsche; Belgium is
about equally divided between the Flemish and the
Walloon. Switzerland, though predominantly German, is
encroached upon by the French in the western cantons, while in
the southeast is used the Italian and a form allied to the same,
the Romance speech of the Rhaetian (Tyrolese) Alps. This form
also prevails in Friuli and some mountainous parts of northern
Italy.
The present population of the German Empire is almost exclusively
Germanic, the exceptions being the Slavic Poles of Posen,
Pomerellen, southeastern Prussia and eastern Silesia, the remnant
of the Wends of Lusatia and the French element in the
recently acquired Imperial lands of Alsace and Lorraine. Beyond
the Empire we find a German population in the Austrian
territories already noted, in the border lands of Bohemia, and in
isolated settlements further east. The great settlement in the
Siebenbürgen was made by German emigrants in the eleventh century
and similar settlements dot the map both of Hungary and Russia.
On the Volga indeed exists the greatest of them all.
Denmark, Norway and Sweden are peopled by the Scandinavianbranch of the Germanic race. Only in the extreme north do we find
another and non-Aryan race, the Lapps. On the other hand a
remnant of the Swedes still retain a precarious hold on the coast
line of their former possession, the Russian Finland.
THE SLAVIC BRANCH.
The Slavs, though the last of the Aryan nations to appear
in history, form numerically by far the greatest branch of the
Indo-European family. Their present number in Europe is computed
at nearly one hundred million souls.
At the time of the great migrations they extended over nearly all
modern Germany; their slow dispossession by the Germanic peoples,
beginning in the eighth century, has already been noticed. In the
course of this dispossession the most westerly Slavic group, the
Polabic, between the Elbe and the Oder, were merged in the
German, and, barring the remnant of Wends in Lusatia (the
Sorabi or Northern Serbs), have disappeared
entirely from ethnic geography.
The great Slavic nation of the present day is Russia, but
the great number of Slavic peoples who are not Russian and the
considerable Russian population which is not Slavic renders
impossible the study of this race on strictly national lines.
The Slavic peoples are separated, partly by geographical
conditions, into three great divisions: the Eastern, the
Western and the Southern. The greatest of these
divisions, the Eastern, lies entirely within the boundaries of
the Russian Empire. The sub-divisions of the Eastern group are as
follows: The Great Russians occupying the vast inland
territory and numbering alone between forty and fifty millions,
the Little Russians inhabiting the entire south of Russia
from Poland to the Caspian, and the White Russians, the
least numerous of this division, in Smolensk, Wilna, and Minsk,
the west provinces bordering on the Lithuanians and Poles.
The West Slavic group, omitting names of peoples now
extinct, are the Poles, Slovaks, Czechs and the remnants
of the Lusatian Wends. The Poles, excepting those
already mentioned as within the German empire, and the Austrian
Poles of Cracow, are all under the domination of Russia. Under
the sovereignty of Austria are the Slovaks, Moravians and
Czechs of Bohemia, the latter the most westerly as well as
historically the oldest of the surviving Slavic peoples, having
appeared in their present seats in the last years of the fifth
century.
{iv}
In connection with this West Slavic group we should also refer to
the Lithuanians whose history, despite the racial
difference, is so closely allied with that of Poland. Their
present location in the Russian provinces of Kowno, Kurland and
Livland has been practically the same since the dawn of history.
The South Slavic peoples were isolated from their northern
kinsmen by the great Finno-Tatar invasions.
The invasion of Europe by the Avars in the sixth century clove
like a wedge the two great divisions of the Slavic race, the
southernmost being forced upon the confines of the East-Roman
Empire. Though less imposing as conquests than the Germanic
invasions of the Western Empire, the racial importance of these
Slavic movements is far greater since they constitute, in
connection with the Finno-Tatar invasions which caused
them, the most important and clearly defined series of ethnic
changes which Europe has experienced during the Christian Era.
During the sixth and seventh centuries these Slavic emigrants
spread over almost the entire Balkan peninsula, including Epirus
and the Peloponnesus. In Greece they afterwards disappeared as a
separate people, but in the region between the Danube, the Save
and the Balkans they immediately developed separate states
(Servia in 641, Bulgaria in 678). As they exist at present they
may be classed in three divisions. The Bulgarians, so
called from the Finno-Tatar people whom they absorbed
while accepting their name, occupy the district included in the
separate state of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, with a
considerable territory to the south of it in Macedonia and
Thrace. It was this last named territory or one very nearly
corresponding to it that was actually ceded to Bulgaria by the
peace of San Stefano, though she unfortunately lost it by the
subsequent compromise effected at the Congress of Berlin. The
second division includes the Servians, Montenegrans,
Bosnians and Croatians, the last two under Austrian
control; the third and smallest are the Slovenes of
Carniola, likewise under Austrian sovereignty. (Schafarik's
"Slawische Alterthümer" is the greatest single authority on the
early history and also comparative ethnology of the
Slavs.)
The territory occupied by the Greek speaking people is
clearly shown on the accompanying map. As in all history, it is
the coast lands where they seem to have formed the strongest
hold. In free Greece itself and in the Turkish territories
immediately adjoining, the Greek population overwhelmingly
preponderates.
Nevertheless there is still a considerable Albanian element in
Attica and Argolis, a Vlach element in Epirus while the
Turk himself still lingers in certain quarters of
Thessaly. All these are remnants left over from the successive
migrations of the Middle Ages. The Slavs, who also figured
most prominently in these migrations, have disappeared in Greece
as a distinct race. The question as to the degree of Slavic
admixture among the modern Greeks is however another fruitful
source of ethnic controversy. The general features of the
question are most compactly stated in Finlay, volume 4, pages 1-37.
NON-ARYAN PEOPLES.
The Non-Aryan peoples on the soil of modern Europe,
excepting the Jews and also probably excepting those already
placed in the unsolved class of pre-Aryan, all belong to the
Finno-Tatar or Ural-Altaic family, and all,
possibly excepting the Finns, date their arrival in Europe
from comparatively recent and historic times. The four principal
divisions of this race, the Ugric, Finnic, Turkic and
Mongolic, all have their European representatives.
Of the first the only representatives are the Hungarians(Magyars). The rift between the North and South Slavic
peoples opened by the Huns in the fifth century, reopened
and enlarged by the Avars in the sixth, was finally
occupied by their kinsmen the Magyars in the ninth. The
receding of this wave of Asiatic invasion left the Magyarsin utter isolation among their Aryan neighbors. It follows as a
natural consequence that they have been the only one of the
Ural-Altaic peoples to accept the religion and
civilization of the West. Since the conversion of their king St.
Stephen in the year 1000, their geographical position has not
altered. Roughly speaking, it comprises the western half of
Hungary, with an outlying branch in the Carpathians.
More closely allied to the Magyars than to their more
immediate neighbors of the same race are the Finnic stems
of the extreme north. Stretching originally over nearly the whole
northern half of Scandinavia and Russia they have been gradually
displaced, in the one case by their Germanic, in the other by
their Slavic neighbors. Their present representatives are the
Ehsts and Tschudes of Ehstland, the Finnsand Karelians of Finland, the Tscheremissians of
the upper Volga, the Siryenians in the basin of the
Petchora and the Lapps in northern Scandinavia and along
the shores of the Arctic ocean.
East of the Lapps, also bordering the Arctic ocean, lie
the Samojedes, a people forming a distinct branch of the
Ural-Altaic family though most closely allied to the Finnic
peoples. The great division of the Ural-Altaic family known
indifferently as Tatar (Tartar) or Turk,
has, like the Aryan Slavs, through the accidents of historical
geography rather than race divergence been separated into two
great divisions: the northern or Russian division commonly
comprised under the specific name of Tartar; and the
southern, the Turk.
These are the latest additions to the European family of races.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia occurred as late as
the thirteenth century, while the Turks did not gain their
first foothold in Europe through the gates of Gallipoli until
1353. The bulk of the Turks of the present day are congregated in
Asia-Minor.
Barring the Armenians, the Georgians of the
northeast, the Greeks of the seacoast and the scattered
Circassians, the whole peninsula is substantially Turkish.
In Europe proper the Turks as a distinct people never cut a great
figure. Even in the grandest days of Osmanli conquest they were
always outnumbered by the conquered nations whose land they
occupied, and with the decline of their power this numerical
inferiority has become more and more marked. At the present day
there are very few portions of the Balkan peninsula where the
Turkish population actually predominates; their general
distribution is clearly shown on the map.
{v}
The Tartars or Russian Turks represent the siftings
of the Asiatic invasions of the thirteenth century.
Their number has been steadily dwindling until they now count
scarcely three millions, a mere handful in the mass of their
former Slavic subjects.
The survivors are scattered in irregular and isolated groups over
the south and east. Prominent among them are the Crim
Tartars, the kindred Nogais of the west shores of the
Caspian, the Kirghis of the north shore and Ural valley,
and the Bashkirs between the upper Ural and the Volga,
with an isolated branch of Tartars in the valley of the Araxes
south of the Caucasus.
The great Asiatic irruption of the thirteenth century has been
commonly known as the Mongol invasion. Such it was in leadership,
though the residuum which it has left behind in European Russia
proves that the rank and file were mostly Tartars. One Mongol
people however, the Kalmucks, did make their way into
Europe and still exist in the steppes between the lower Don and
the lower Volga.
The ethnology of the Caucasian peoples is the most difficult part
of the entire subject. On the steppes of the Black and Caspian
seas up to the very limit of the Caucasus we have two races
between whom the ethnic distinction is clearly defined, the
Mongol-Tartar and the Slav. Entering the Caucasus however we find
a vast number of races differing alike from these and from each
other.
To enumerate all the different divisions of these races, whose
ethnology is so very uncertain, would be useless. Grouped in
three general divisions however they are as follows: the
so-called Circassians who formerly occupied the whole
western Caucasus with the adjoining Black sea coast but who,
since the Russian conquest of 1864, have for the most part
emigrated to different quarters of the Turkish Empire; the
Lesghians, under which general name are included the
motley crowd of peoples inhabiting the eastern Caucasus; and the
Georgians, the supposed descendants of the ancient
Iberians of the Caucasus, who inhabit the southern slope,
including all the Tiflis province and the Trapezuntine lands on
the southeast coast of the Black sea.
The Tartars are hardly found in the Caucasus though they
reappear immediately south of it in the lower basin of the Kura
and the Araxes. Here also appear the various Iranian stems
of the Asiatic Aryans, the Armenians, the Persiansand the Kurds.
R. H. Latham's works on "European Ethnology" are the best general
authority in English. Of more recent German guides, map and
otherwise, the following are noteworthy: Bastain's
"Ethnologisches Bilderbuch," "Das Beständige in den
Menschenrassen," "Allgemeine Grundzüge der Ethnologie," Kiepert's
"Ethnographische Uebersichtskarte des Europäischen Orients,"
Menke's "Europa nach seinen Ethnologischen Verhältnissen in der
Mitte des 19. Jahrhundert," Rittich's "Ethnographie des
europäischen Russland," Sax's "Ethnographische Karte der
europäischen Turkei," Berghaus's "Ethnographische Karte vom
österreichischen Kaiserstaat," Wendt's "Bilder Atlas der Länder
und Völkerkunde," Andree's "Allgemeiner Hand-atlas
(Ethnographischen Karten)," Gerland's "Atlas der Ethnographie."
A. C. Reiley.
{vi}
APPENDIX B.
NOTES TO FOUR MAPS OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA.
(TWELFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.)
There exists to-day upon the map of Europe no section whose
historical geography has a greater present interest than the
Danubian, Balkan and Levantine states. It is these and the
Austro-Hungarian lands immediately adjoining which have formed
one of the great fulcrums for those national movements which
constitute the prime feature of the historical geography of the
present age.
Upon the present map of Europe in this quarter we discover a
number of separate and diminutive national entities, the
Roumanian, Bulgarian, Servian and Montenegrin, the
Greek and Albanian, all struggling desperately to
establish themselves on the debris of the crumbling Turkish
Empire.
What the issue will be of these numerous and mutually conflicting
struggles for separate national existence it is out of our
province to forecast.
It is only intended in this map series to throw all possible
light on their true character from the lessons and analogies of
the past. At first sight the period treated in the four Levantine
maps (from the last of the twelfth to the middle of the fifteenth
century) must appear the most intricate and the most obscure in
the entire history of this region. The most intricate it
certainly is, and possibly the most obscure, though the obscurity
arises largely from neglect. Its importance, however, arises from
the fact that it is the only past period of Levantine history
which presents a clear analogy to the present, not alone in its
purely transitionary character, but also from the several
national movements which during this time were diligently at
work.
During the Roman and the earlier Byzantine periods, which from
their continuity may be taken as one, any special tendency was of
course stifled under the preponderant rule of a single great
empire.
The same was equally true at a later time, when all of these
regions passed under the rule of the Turk. These four maps
treat of that most interesting period intervening between the
crumbling of the Byzantine power and the Turkish conquest. That
in our own day the crumbling in turn of the Turkish power has
repeated, in its general features, the same historical situation,
is the point upon which the interest must inevitably centre.
What the outcome will be in modern times forms the most
interesting of political studies. Whether the native races of the
Danube, the Balkans and the southern peninsula are to work out
their full national development, either federately or
independently, or whether they are destined to pass again, as is
threatened, under the domination of another and greater empire,
is one of the most important of the questions which agitates the
mind of the modern European statesman. That the latter outcome is
now the less likely is due to the great unfolding of separate
national spirit which marks so strongly the age in which we live.
The reason why the previous age treated in this map series ended
in nothing better than foreign and Mohammedan conquest may
perhaps be sought in the imperfect development of this same
national spirit.
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
The first map (Asia Minor and the Balkans near the close of the
twelfth century) is intended to show the geographical situation
as it existed immediately prior to the dismemberment of the
Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire of this period is in
itself an important study. It must be regarded more as the
offspring than the direct continuation of the great East-Roman
Empire of Arcadius and Justinian; for with the centuries which
had intervened the great changes in polity, internal geography,
external neighbors and lastly the continual geographical
contraction, present us with an entirely new series of relations.
It is this geographical contraction which concerns us most
vitally, for with it the frontiers of the empire conform more and
more closely to the ethnic limits of the Greek nation. The
later Byzantine Empire was, therefore, essentially a Greek
Empire, and as such it appeals most vividly to the national
consciousness of the Greek of our own time. The restoration of
this empire, with the little kingdom of free Greece as the
nucleus, is the vision which inspires the more aggressive and
venturesome school of modern Greek politicians. In the twelfth
century the bulk of Asia Minor had been wrested from the
Byzantine Empire by the Turks, but it was the Crusaders,
not the Turks, who overthrew the first empire. In one view
this fact is fortunate, otherwise there would have been no
transition period whose study would be productive of such
fruitful results.
Owing to the artful policy of the Comnenian emperors, the
Byzantine Empire actually profited by the early crusades and was
enabled through them to recover a considerable part of Asia Minor
from the Turks. This apparent success, however, was only the
prelude to final disaster.
Isolated from western Christendom by the schism, the
Greeks were an object of suspicion and hatred to the Latin
Crusaders and it only required a slight abatement of the original
crusading spirit for their warlike ardor to be diverted from
Jerusalem to Constantinople. Cyprus was torn away from the Greek
Empire and created a separate kingdom under Latin rule, in 1191.

Finally, the so-called Fourth Crusade, controlled by Venetian
intrigue, ended in the complete dismemberment of the Byzantine
Empire (1204).
{vii}
This nefarious enterprise forms a dark spot in history: it also
ushers in the greatest period of geographical intricacy in
Levantine annals, the geography which immediately resulted from
it is not directly shown in this Levantine map series, but can be
seen on the general map of Europe at the opening of the
thirteenth century. Briefly stated, it represented the
establishment of a fragmentary and disjointed Latin Empire in the
place of the former Greek Empire of Constantinople. Known as the
Latin Empire of Romania, this new creation included the Empire of
Constantinople proper and its feudal dependencies, the kingdom of
Thessalonica, the duchy of Athens, and the principality of
Achaia.
Three orphan Greek states survived the fall of the parent power:
in Europe, the despotat of Epirus, and in Asia, the empires of
Nicæa and Trebizond.
The Latin states of the East are scarcely worthy the historian's
notice. They have no place whatever in the natural development,
either political or geographical, of the Levantine states. They
were not only forced by foreign lances upon an unwilling
population, but were clumsy feudalisms, established among a
people to whom the feudal idea was unintelligible and barbarous.
Like their prototypes, the Crusading states of Syria, they
resembled artificial encroachments upon the sea, standing for a
time, but with the ordinary course of nature the ocean reclaims
its own.
Even the weak little Greek states were strong in comparison and
immediately began to recover ground at their expense. The kingdom
of Thessalonica was overthrown by the despot of Epirus in 1222;
the Latin Empire of Constantinople itself fell before the Greek
Emperor of Nicæa in 1261; while the last of the barons of the
principality of Achaia submitted to the Byzantine despots of the
Morea in 1430.
The duchy of Athens alone of all these Latin states survived long
enough to fall at last before the Turkish conquest. The
Levantine possessions won by Venice at this and later times were
destined, partly from their insular or maritime location, and
partly from the greater vitality of trade relations, to enjoy a
somewhat longer life.
To the Nicæan emperors of the house of Paleologus belongs the
achievement of having restored the Byzantine Empire in the event
of 1261. The expression Restored Byzantine Empire has been
employed, since it has the sanction of usage, though a complete
restoration never occurred. The geography of the Restored Empire
as shown on the second map (1265 A. D.) fails to include the
greater part of what we may term the cradle of the Greek race.
The only subsequent extension was over the balance of the Morea.
In every other quarter the frontiers of the Restored Empire soon
began to recede until it included only the city of Constantinople
and an ever decreasing portion of Thrace. With the commencement
of the fourteenth century the Turks, having thrown off the
Mongol-Tartar dominion, began under the house of Osmanlis their
final career of conquest. This, of course, was the beginning of
the end. Their first foothold in Europe was gained in 1353, but
over a century was destined to elapse before the completion of
their sovereignty in all the lands south of the Danube. There
remains, therefore, a considerable period during which whatever
separate national tendencies existed had full opportunity to
work.
THE FIRST AND SECOND BULGARIAN KINGDOMS.
It was this age which saw not only the highest point in the
national greatness of Bulgaria and Servia, but also witnessed the
evolution of the Wallachian principalities in the lands north of
the Danube.
The separate states of Bulgaria and Servia, born in the seventh
century of the great southward migration of the Slavicpeoples, had in after times risen or fallen according to the
strength or weakness of the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria had
hitherto shown the greatest power. At several different periods,
notably under Simeon (883-927), and again under Samuel
(976-1014), it developed a strength which fairly overawed the
Empire itself. These Slavic states had, however, been
subjected by the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the
eleventh century, and, though Servia enjoyed another period of
independence (1040-1148), it was not until the final crumbling of
the Byzantine Empire, the premonition of the event of 1204, that
their expansion recommences. The Wallachian, or Second Bulgarian
kingdom, which came into existence in 1187 in the lands between
the Balkans and the Danube, has been the subject of an ethnic
discussion which need not detain us. That it was not purely
Slavic is well established, for the great and singular
revival of the Vlach or Rouman peoples and their
movement from the lands south of Haemus to their present seats
north of the Danube, which is one of the great features of this
age, had already begun. (The country between the Danube and the
Balkans, the seat of the Second Bulgarian kingdom, appears as
Aspro or White-Wallachia in some Byzantine writings. So also
north of the Danube the later Moldavia and Great Wallachia are
known respectively as Mavro [Black] and Hungarowallachia. Still
the fact of a continuous Roumnn civilization north of the Danube
is not established. The theory of a great northward movement of
the Vlach peoples is the one now generally accepted and is ably
advocated in Roesler's "Romänische Studien.")
At the present day this movement has been so long completed that
scarcely the trace of Vlach population remains in the
lands south of the Danube. These emigrants appear, as it were, in
passing, to have shared with the native Bulgarians in the
creation of this Second Bulgarian kingdom. This realm achieved a
momentary greatness under its rulers of the house of Asau. The
dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 enabled them to
make great encroachments to the south, and it seemed for a time
that to the Bulgarian, not the Greek, would fall the task of
overthrowing the Latin Empire of Roumania (see general map of
Europe at the opening of the thirteenth century). With the
reëstablishment, however, of the Greek Empire of Constantinople,
in 1261, the Bulgarian kingdom began to lose much of its
importance, and its power was finally broken in 1285 by the
Mongols.
SERVIA.
In the following century it was the turn of Servia to enjoy a
period of preeminent greatness. The latter kingdom had recovered
its independence under the house of Nemanja in 1183.
{viii}
Under the great giant conqueror Stephen Dushan (1321-1355) it
enjoyed a period of greater power than has ever before or since
fallen to the lot of a single Balkan state. The Restored
Byzantine Empire had sustained no permanent loss from the period
of Bulgarian greatness: it was by the sudden Servian conquest
that it was deprived forever of nearly all its European
possessions (see Balkan map III). A Byzantine reaction might have
come under other conditions, but already another and greater
enemy was at her gates. Dushan died in 1355; and already, in
1353, two years before, the Turk at Gallipoli had made his
entrance into Europe. From this time every Christian state of the
East grew steadily weaker until Bulgaria, Servia, the Greek
Empire, and finally even Hungary, had passed under the Turkish
dominion.
THE VLACHS.
Passing on from these Slavic peoples, another national
manifestation of the greatest importance belonging to this
period, one which, unlike the Greek and Slavic, may be said in
one sense to have originated in the period, was that of the
Vlachs. This Latin population, which ethnologists
have attempted to identify with the ancient Thracians,
was, previous to the twelfth century, scattered in irregular
groups throughout the entire Balkan peninsula. During the twelfth
century their great northward migration began. A single result of
this movement has already been noticed in the rise of the Second
Bulgarian kingdom. South of the Danube, however, their influence
was transitory. It was north of the river that the evolution of
the two principalities, Great Wallachia (Roumania) and Moldavia,
and the growth of a Vlach population in the Transylvanian
lands of Eastern Hungary, has yielded the ethnic and in great
part the political geography of the present day.
The process of this evolution may be understood from a
comparative study of the four Balkan maps. Upon the first map the
Cumanians, a Finno-Tatar people, who in the twelfth
century had displaced a kindred race, the Patzinaks or
Petschenegs, occupy the whole country between the Danube and the
Transylvanian Alps. These were in turn swept forever from the map
of Europe by the Mongols (1224). With the receding of this
exterminating wave of Asiatic conquest the great wilderness was
thrown open to new settlers. The settlements of the Vlachsnorth of the Danube and east of the Aluta became the principality
of Great Wallachia, the nucleus of the modern Roumania. West of
the Aluta the district of Little Wallachia was incorporated for a
long period, as the banat of Severin, in the Hungarian kingdom.
Finally, the principality of Moldavia came into existence in
1341, in land previously won by the Hungarians from the Mongols,
between the Dniester and the Carpathians. Both the principalities
of Great Wallachia and Moldavia were in the fourteenth century
dependencies of Hungary. The grasp of Hungary was loosened,
however, towards the close of the century and after a period of
shifting dependence, now on Hungary, now on Turkey, and for a
time, in the case of Moldavia, on Poland, we come to the period
of permanent Turkish supremacy.
With the presence and influence of the Vlachs south of the
Balkans, during this period, we are less interested, since their
subsequent disappearance has removed the subject from any direct
connection with modern politics. The only quarter where they
still linger and where this influence led to the founding of an
independent state, was in the country east of the range of
Pindus, the Great Wallachia of the Byzantines. Here the
principality of Wallachian Thessaly appeared as an offshoot of
the Greek despotat of Epirus in 1259 (see map II).
This state retained its independent existence until 1308, when it
was divided between the Catalan dukes of Athens and the Byzantine
Empire.
ALBANIANS.
The Skipetars (Albanians) during this period appear
to have been the slowest to grasp out for a separate national
existence. The southern section of Albania formed, after the fall
of Constantinople, a part of the despotat of Epirus, and whatever
independence existed in the northern section was lost in the
revival, first of the Byzantine, then, in the ensuing century, of
the Servian power. It was not until 1444 that a certain George
Castriot, known to the Turks as Iskander-i-beg, or Scanderbeg,
created a Christian principality in the mountain fastnesses of
Albania. This little realm stretched along the Adriatic from
Butrinto almost to Antivari, embracing, further inland, Kroja and
the basin of the Drin (see map IV).
It was not until after Scanderbeg's death that Ottoman control
was confirmed over this spirited Albanian population.
THE TURKISH CONQUEST.
The reign of Mohammed II. (1451-1481) witnessed the final
conquest of the entire country south of the Danube and the Save.
The extent of the Turkish Empire at his accession is shown on map
IV. The acquisitions of territory during his reign included in
Asia Minor the old Greek Empire of Trebizond (1461) and the
Turkish dynasty of Karaman; in Europe, Constantinople, whose fall
brought the Byzantine Empire to a close in 1453, the duchy of
Athens (1456), the despotats of Patras and Misithra (1460),
Servia (1458), Bosnia (1463), Albania (1468), Epirus and
Acarnania, the continental dominion of the Counts of Cephalonia
(1479), and Herzegovina (1481). In the mountainous district
immediately south of Herzegovina, the principality of Montenegro,
situated in lands which had formed the southern part of the first
Servian kingdom, alone preserved its independence, even at the
height of the Turkish domination.
The chronicle of Turkish history thereafter records only conquest
after conquest. The islands of the Ægean were many of them won
during Mohammed's own reign, the acquisition of the remainder
ensued shortly after. Venice was hunted step by step out of all
her Levantine possessions save the Ionian Islands; the
superiority over the Crim Tartars, Wallachia, Moldavia and
Jedisan followed, finally, the defeat at Mohacs (1526), and the
subsequent internal anarchy left nearly all Hungary at the mercy
of the Ottoman conqueror.
The geographical homogeneity thus restored by the Turkish
conquest was not again disturbed until the present century. The
repetition of almost the same conditions in our own time, though
with the process reversed, has been referred to in the sketch of
Balkan geography of the present day. The extreme importance of
the period just described, for the purposes of minute historical
analogy, will be apparent at once wherever comparison is
attempted.
{ix}
The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries were of
course periods of far greater geographical intricacy, but the
purpose has been rather to indicate the nature of this intricacy
than to describe it in detail. The principal feature, namely, the
national movements, wherever they have manifested themselves,
have been more carefully dwelt upon. The object has been simply
to show that the four separate national movements, the
Greek, the Slavic, the Rouman, and the
Albanian, which may be said to have created the present
Levantine problem, were all present, and in the case of the two
last may even be said to have had their inception, in the period
just traversed.
In the present century the unfolding of national spirit has been
so much greater and far-reaching that a different outcome may be
looked for. It is sufficient for the present that the incipient
existence of these same movements has been shown to have existed
in a previous age. The best general text authority in English for
the geography of this period is George Finlay's "History of
Greece," volumes. III. and IV.; a more exhaustive guide in German is
Hopf's "Geschichte Griechenlands." For the purely geographical
works see the general bibliography of historical geography.
A. C. Reiley.
{x}
APPENDIX C.
NOTES TO THE MAP OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA. (PRESENT CENTURY.)
The present century has been a remarkable one for the settlement
of great political and geographical questions. These questions
resolve themselves into two great classes, which indicate the
political forces of the present age,--the first, represented in
the growth of democratic thought, and the second arising from the
awakening of national spirit. The first of these concerns
historical geography only incidentally, but the second has
already done much to reconstruct the political geography of our
time.
RECENT NATIONAL MOVEMENTS.
Within a little over thirty years it has changed the map of
central Europe from a medley of small states into a united Italy
and a united Germany; it has also led to a reconstruction of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, In Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary,
the national questions may, however, be regarded as settled; and
if, in the case of Austria-Hungary, owing to exactly reverse
conditions, the settlement has been a tentative one, it has at
least removed the question from the more immediate concern of the
present. In a different quarter of Europe, however, the rise of
the national movements has led to a question, infinitely more
complicated than the others, and which, so far from being
settled, is becoming ever more pressing year by year. This
reference is to the great Balkan problem. That this question has
been delayed in its solution for over four centuries, is due, no
doubt, to the conquests of the Turk, and it is still complicated
by his presence. In the notes to the four previous Balkan maps
(1191-1451), attention was especially directed to the national
movements, so far as they had opportunity to develop themselves
during this period. These movements, feeble in their character,
were all smothered by the Turkish conquest. With the decline of
this power in the present century these forces once more have
opportunity for reappearance. In this regard the history of the
Balkans during the nineteenth century is simply the history of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries read backwards.
The Turkish Empire had suffered terrible reverses during the
eighteenth century. Hungary (1699), the Crim Tartars (1774),
Bukovina (1777), Jedisan (1792), Bessarabia and Eastern Moldavia
(1812) were all successively wrested from the Ottomans, while
Egypt on one side and Moldavia and Wallachia on another recovered
practical autonomy, the one under the restored rule of the
Mamelukes (1766), the other under native hospodars.
THE SERVIAN AND GREEK REVOLTS.
All of these losses, though greatly weakening the Ottoman power,
did not destroy its geographical integrity. It was with the
Servian revolt of 1804 that the series of events pointing to the
actual disruption of the Turkish Empire may be said to have
begun. The first period of dissolution was measured by the reign
of Mahmoud II. (1808-1839), at once the greatest and the most
unfortunate of all the later Turkish sultans. Servia, first under
Kara Georg, then under Milosch Obrenovitch, the founder of the
present dynasty, maintained a struggle which led to the
recognition of Servian local autonomy in 1817. The second step in
the process of dissolution was the tragic Greek revolution
(1821-1828). The Sultan, after a terrible war of extermination,
had practically reduced Greece to subjection, when all his work
was undone by the intervention of the great powers.
The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the combined squadrons of
England, France and Russia at Navarin, October 20, 1827, and in
the campaign of the ensuing year the Moscovite arms for the first
time in history penetrated south of the Balkans. The treaty of
Adrianople, between Russia and Turkey (September 14, 1829), gave
to the Czar the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia. By the
treaty of London earlier in this year Greece was made autonomous
under the suzerainty of the Sultan, and the protocol of March 22,
1829, drew her northern frontier in a line between the gulfs of
Arta and Volo. The titular sovereignty of the Sultan over Greece
was annulled later in the year at the peace of Adrianople, though
the northern boundary of the Hellenic kingdom was then curtailed
to a line drawn from the mouth of the Achelous to the gulf of
Lamia. With the accession of the Bavarian king Otho, in 1833,
after the failure of the republic, the northern boundary was
again adjusted, returning to about the limits laid down in the
March protocol of 1829. Greece then remained for over fifty years
bounded on the north by Mount Othrys, the Pindus range and the
gulf of Arta. In 1863, on the accession of the Danish king George
I., the Ionian Isles, which had been under English administration
since the Napoleonic wars, were ceded to the Greek kingdom, and
in May, 1881, almost the last change in European geography to the
present day was accomplished in the cession, by the Sultan, of
Thessaly and a small part of Epirus. The agitation in 1886 for a
further extension of Greek territory was unsuccessful.
THE TREATY OF UNKIAR SKELESSI.
A series of still greater reverses brought the reign of the
Sultan Mahmoud to a close. The chief of these were the defeats
sustained at the hands of his rebellious vassal Mehemet Ali,
pacha of Egypt, a man who takes rank even before the Sultan
himself as the greatest figure in the Mohammedan world during the
present century. The immediate issue of this struggle was the
practical independence of Egypt, where the descendants of Mehemet
still rule, their title having been changed in 1867 from viceroy
to that of khedive. An event incidental to the strife between
Mehemet Ali and the Sultan is of far greater importance in the
history of European Turkey.
{xi}
Mahmoud in his distress looked for aid to the great powers, and
the final issue of the rival interests struggling at
Constantinople was the memorable treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July,
1833) by which the Sultan resigned himself completely to the
interests of his former implacable foe, the Czar of Russia. In
outward appearance this treaty was an offensive and defensive
alliance; in practical results it gave the Moscovite, in exchange
for armed assistance, when needed, the practical control of the
Dardanelles. It is no extravagance of statement to say that this
treaty forms absolutely the high watermark of Russian
predominance in the affairs of the Levant. During the subsequent
sixty years, this influence, taken as a whole, strange paradox as
it may seem, has rather receded than advanced. The utter
prostration of the Turkish Empire on the death of Mahmoud (1839)
compelled Russia to recede from the conditions of Unkiar Skelessi
while a concert of the European powers undertook the task of
rehabilitating the prostrate power; the Crimean war (1854-1855)
struck a more damaging blow at the Russian power, and the events
of 1878, though they again shattered the Turkish Empire, did not,
as will be shown, lead to corresponding return of the Czar's
ascendency.
THE CRIMEAN WAR AND TREATY OF PARIS.
The Crimean War was brought on by the attempt of the Czar to
dictate concerning the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire--a
policy which culminated in the occupation of Moldavia and
Wallachia (1853). All Europe became arrayed against Russia on
this question,--Prussia and Austria in tacit opposition, while
England, France, and afterwards Piedmont, drifted into war with
the northern power.
By the treaty of Paris (1856), which terminated the sanguinary
struggle, the Danube, closed since the peace of Adrianople
(1829), was reopened; the southern part of Bessarabia was taken
from Russia and added to the principality of Moldavia; the treaty
powers renounced all right to interfere in the internal affairs
of the Porte; and, lastly, the Black Sea, which twenty years
before, by the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, had become a private
Russian pond, was swept of the Russian fleets and converted into
a neutral sea. The latter condition however was abrogated by the
powers (March 13, 1871).
Despite the defeat of Russia, the settlement effected at the
congress of Paris was but tentative. The most that the allied
powers could possibly have hoped for, was so far to cripple
Russia as to render her no longer a menace to the Ottoman Empire.
They succeeded only in so far as to defer the recurrence of a
Turkish crisis for another twenty years.
The chief event of importance during this interval was the birth
of the united Roumania. In 1857 the representative councils of
both Moldavia and Wallachia voted for their union under this
name. This personal union was accomplished by the choice of a
common ruler, John Cuza (1859), whose election was confirmed by a
new conference at Paris in 1861. A single ministry and single
assembly were formed at Bucharest in 1862. Prince Karl of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was elected hospodar in 1866, and
finally crowned as king in 1881.
THE REVIVED EASTERN QUESTION OF 1875-78.
The Eastern question was reopened with all its perplexities in
the Herzegovinian and Bosnian revolt of August, 1875. These
provinces, almost cut off from the Turkish Empire by Montenegro
and Servia, occupied a position which rendered their subjugation
almost a hopeless task. Preparations were already under way for a
settlement by joint action of the powers, when a wave of
fanatical fury sweeping over the Ottoman Empire rendered all
these efforts abortive. Another Christian insurrection in
Bulgaria was suppressed in a series of wholesale and atrocious
massacres. Servia and Montenegro in a ferment declared war on
Turkey (July 2, 1876). The Turkish arms, however, were easily
victorious, and Russia only saved the Servian capital by
compelling an armistice (October 30). A conference of the
representatives of the powers was then held at Constantinople in
a final effort to arrange for a reorganization of the Empire,
which should include the granting of autonomy to Bosnia,
Herzegovina and Bulgaria. These conditions, though subsequently
embodied in a general ultimatum, the London protocol of March 31,
1877, were rejected by the Porte, and Russia, who had determined
to proceed alone in the event of this rejection, immediately
declared war (April 24). Into this war, owing to the horror
excited in England by the Bulgarian massacres, and the altered
policy of France, the Turk was compelled to go without allies,
and thus unassisted his defeat was assured. Then followed the
sanguinary campaigns in Bulgaria, the memories of which are still
recent and unobscured. Plevna, the central point of the Turkish
resistance, fell on December 10th; Adrianople was occupied by the
Russians on January 20th, 1878; and on January 31st., an
armistice was granted.
Great Britain now seemed roused to a sense of the danger to
herself in the Russian approach to Constantinople, and public
opinion at last permitted Lord Beaconsfield to send a fleet to
the Bosporus.
By the Russo-Turkish peace of San Stephano (March 3, 1878) Turkey
recognized the complete independence of Servia, Roumania and
Montenegro, while Bulgaria became what Servia and Roumania had
just ceased to be, an autonomous principality under nominal
Turkish sovereignty. Russia received the Dobrutcha in Europe,
which was to be given by the Czar to Roumania in exchange for the
portion of Bessarabia lost in 1856. Servia and Montenegro
received accessions of territory, the latter securing Antivari on
the coast, but the greatest geographical change was the frontier
assigned to the new Bulgaria, which was to include all the
territory bounded by an irregular line beginning at Midia on the
Black Sea and running north of Adrianople, and, in addition, a
vast realm in Macedonia, bounded on the west only by Albania,
approaching Salonica, and touching the Ægean on either side of
the Chalcidice.
It was evident that the terms of this treaty involved the
interests of other powers, especially of Great Britain. An
ultimate settlement which involved as parties only the conqueror
and conquered was therefore impossible. A general congress of the
Powers was seen to be the only solvent of the difficulty; but
before such a congress was possible it was necessary for Great
Britain and Russia to find at least a tangible basis of
negotiation for the adjustment of their differences.
{xii}
By the secret agreement of May 30th, Russia agreed to abandon the
disputed points--chief among these the creation of a Bulgarian
seaboard on the Ægean--and the congress of Berlin then assembled
(June 13-July 13, 1878).
ARRANGEMENTS OF THE TREATY OF BERLIN.
Great Britain was represented at the congress by the Marquis of
Salisbury and the premier, the Earl of Beaconsfield. The treaty
of Berlin modified the conditions of San Stephano by reducing the
Russian acquisitions in Asia Minor and also by curtailing the
cessions of territory to Servia and Montenegro. A recommendation
was also made to the Porte to cede Thessaly and a part of Epirus
to Greece, a transfer which was accomplished in 1881. A more
important provision was the transfer of the administrative
control of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria.
This cession was the outcome of the secret agreement between
Russia and Austria at Reichstadt, in July of the previous year,
by which the former had secured from her rival a free hand in the
Turkish war. These districts were at once occupied by Austria,
despite the resistance of the Mohammedan population, and the
sanjak of Novibazar, the military occupation of which was agreed
to by the Porte, was also entered by Austrian troops in September
of the following year. England secured as her share of the spoil
the control of the island of Cyprus.
The greatest work accomplished at Berlin, however, was the
complete readjustment of the boundaries of the new Bulgarian
principality. This result was achieved through the agency of
Great Britain. The great Bulgarian domain, which by the treaty of
San Stephano would have conformed almost to the limits of the
Bulgarian Empire of the tenth century, was, with the exception of
a small western strip including the capital, Sofia, pushed
entirely north of the Balkans. This new principality was to enjoy
local autonomy; and immediately south of the Balkans was formed a
new province, Eastern Roumelia, also with local autonomy,
although under the military authority of the Sultan.
The result of the Berlin Congress was the apparent triumph of the
Beaconsfield policy. It is doubtful, however, if the idea of this
triumph has been fully sustained by the course of subsequent
events. The idea of Beaconsfield appears to have been that the
new Bulgaria could not become other than a virtual dependency of
Russia, and that in curtailing its boundaries he was checking by
so much the growth of Russian influence. If he could have
foreseen, however, the unexpected spirit with which the
Bulgarians have defended their autonomy, not from Turkish but
from Russian aggression, it is doubtful if he would have lent
himself with such vigor to that portion of his policy which had
for its result the weakening of this "buffer" state. The
determination to resist Russian aggression in the Balkans
continues to form the purpose of English politicians of nearly
all schools; but the idea that this policy is best served by
maintaining the integrity of the Ottoman Empire in Europe has
been steadily losing adherents since Beaconsfield's day. The one
event of importance in Balkan history since 1878 has served well
to illustrate this fact.
LATER CHANGES.
In September, 1885, the revolt of Eastern Roumelia partially
undid the work of the Berlin treaty. After the usual negotiations
between the Powers, the question at issue was settled by a
conference of ambassadors at Constantinople in November, by which
Eastern Roumelia was placed under the rule of the Bulgarian
prince as vassal of the Sultan. This result was achieved through
the agency of England, and against the opposition of Russia and
other continental powers. England and Russia had in fact
exchanged policies since 1878, now that the real temper of the
Bulgarian people was more generally understood.
The governments of Greece and Servia, alarmed at the predominance
thus given to Bulgaria among the liberated states, sought similar
compensation, but were both foiled.
Servia, which sought this direct from Bulgaria, was worsted in a
short war (Nov.-Dec. 1885), and Greece was checked in her
aspiration for further territorial aggrandizement at the expense
of Turkey by the combined blockade of the Powers in the spring of
1886.
Since then, no geographical change has taken place in the old
lands of European Turkey. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria was forced
to abdicate by Russian intrigue in September 1886; but under his
successor, Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (crowned in 1887), und
his able minister Stambouloff, Bulgaria has successfully
preserved its autonomy.
THE PRESENT-DAY PROBLEM.
A general statement of the Balkan problem as it exists to-day may
be briefly given. The non-Turkish populations of European
Turkey, for the most part Christian, are divided ethnically into
four groups: the Roumans or Vlachs, the
Greeks, the Albanians and the Slavs. The
process of liberation, as it has proceeded during the present
century, has given among these people the following separate
states. The Vlachs are represented in the present kingdom
of Roumania ruled by a Hohenzollern prince; the Greeks are
represented in the little kingdom of Greece ruled by a prince of
the house of Denmark; while the Slavs are represented by
three autonomous realms: Bulgaria under Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg,
Servia under the native dynasty of Obrenovitch, and the little
principality of Montenegro, the only one of all which had never
yielded to Turkish supremacy, under the Petrovic house, which is
likewise native.
The Albanians alone of the four races, owing in part,
perhaps, to their more or less general acceptance of
Mohammedanism, have not as yet made a determined effort for
separate national existence.
To these peoples, under any normal process of development,
belongs the inheritance of the Turkish Empire in Europe. The time
has long passed when any such process can be effectually hindered
on the Turkish side. It will be hindered, if at all, either by
the aggressive and rival ambitions of their two great neighbors,
Austria and Russia, or by the mutual jealousies and opposing
claims of the peoples themselves. The unfortunate part which
these jealousies are likely to play in the history of the future
was dimly foreshadowed in the events of 1885.
{xiii}
It is indeed these rival aspirations, rather than the collapse of
the Turkish power, which are most likely to afford Russia and
even Austria the opportunity for territorial extension over the
Balkan lands. A confederation, or even a tacit understanding
between the Balkan states, would do much to provide against this
danger; but the idea of a confederation, though often suggested
and even planned, belongs at present only to the realm of
possibilities. On the one hand Servia, menaced by the proximity
of Austria, leans upon Russian support; on the other, Bulgaria,
under exactly reverse conditions, yields to the influence of
Austria. It will be seen at once that these are unfavorable
conditions on which to build up any federative action. If at the
next crisis, however, the liberated states are fated to act
independently, it will be seen at once that Greece and Bulgaria
possess the better chance. Not only are they the most remote from
any of the great powers, but they alone possess a geography which
is entirely open on the Turkish side. Moreover, what is of still
greater consequence, it is they who, from an ethnic standpoint,
have the most legitimate interest in the still unliberated
population of European Turkey. The unliberated Greekpopulation predominates in southern Macedonia, the Chalcidian
peninsula and along almost the entire seaboard, both of Thrace
and Asia Minor; on the other hand the ethnographical limits of
the Bulgarian people conform almost exactly to the
boundaries of Bulgaria as provided for at San Stephano. The
creation of a political Bulgaria to correspond to the ethnic
Bulgaria was indeed the purpose of the Russian government in
1878, though with the repetition of the same conditions it would
hardly be its purpose again. Barring, therefore, the Albanians of
the west, who as yet have asserted no clearly defined national
claim, the Greeks and the Bulgarians are the logical heirs
to what remains of European Turkey.
These observations are not intended as a fore-cast; they merely
indicate what would be an inevitable outcome, were the question
permitted a natural settlement.
Concerning the Turks themselves a popular fallacy has ever
been to consider their destiny as a whole. But here again an
important division of the subject intrudes itself.
In Asia Minor, where the Turkish population overwhelmingly
preponderates, the question of their destiny, barring the ever
threatened Russian interference, ought not to arouse great
concern in the present. But in European Turkey the utter lack of
this predominance seems to deprive the Ottoman of his only
legitimate title. The Turkish population in Thrace and the
Balkans never did in fact constitute a majority; and with its
continual decline, measured indeed by the decline of the Ottoman
Empire itself, the greatest of all obstacles to an equitable and
final settlement has been removed. (See the ethnic map of Europe
at the present day.)
The historical geography of the Balkans during the present
century is not so intricate that it may not be understood even
from the current literature of the subject. The best purely
geographical authority is E. Hertslet's "Map of Europe by
Treaty." Of text works A. C. Fyffe's. "History of Modern Europe,"
and J. H. Rose's "A Century of Continental History" afford
excellent general views. The facts concerning the settlement of
the first northern boundary of free Greece are given in Finlay's
"History of Greece," Volume VII. Of excellent works dealing more or
less directly with present Balkan politics there is hardly an
end. It is necessary to mention but a few: E. de Laveleye's "The
Balkan Peninsula," E. A. Freeman's "The Ottoman Power in Europe,"
the Duke of Argyll's "The Eastern Question," and James Baker's
"Turkey." See also the general bibliography of historical
geography.
A. C. Reiley.
{xiv}
APPENDIX D.
NOTES TO THE DEVELOPMENT MAP OF CHRISTIANITY.
The subject matter contained in this map is of a character so
distinct from that of the other maps of this series that the
reader must expect a corresponding modification in the method of
treatment.
The use of historical maps is confined, for the most part, to the
statement of purely political conditions.
This is in fact almost the only field which admits of exact
portrayal, within the limits of historical knowledge, by this
method. Any other phase of human life, whether religious or
social, which concerns the belief or the thought of the people
rather than the exact extent of their race or their government,
must remain, so far as the limitations of cartography is
concerned, comparatively intangible.
Again, it should be noted that, even in the map treatment of a
subject as comparatively exact as political geography, it is one
condition of exactness that this treatment should be specific in
its relation to a date, or at least to a limited period.
The map which treats a subject in its historical development has
the undoubted merit of greater comprehensiveness; but this
advantage cannot be gained without a certain loss of relation and
proportion. Between the "development" map and the "date" map
there is this difference: In the one, the whole subject passes
before the eye in a sort of moving panorama, the salient points
evident, but with their relation to external facts often
obscured: in the other, the subject stands still at one
particular point and permits itself to be photographed. A
progressive series of such photographs, each forming a perfect
picture by itself, yet each showing the clear relation with what
precedes and follows, affords the method which all must regard as
the most logical and the most exact. But from the very intangible
nature of the subject treated in this map, the date method, with
its demand for exactness, becomes impracticable. These
observations are necessary in explaining the limitations of
cartography in dealing with a subject of this nature. The notes
that follow are intended as a simple elucidation of the plan of
treatment.
The central feature in the early development of Christianity is
soon stated. The new faith spread by churches from city to city
until it became the religion of the Roman Empire; afterwards this
spread was continued from people to people until it became the
religion of Europe. The statement of the general fact in this
crude and untempered form might in an ordinary case provoke
criticism, and its invariable historic truth with reference to
the second period be open to some question; but within the limits
of map presentation it is substantially accurate. It forms,
indeed, the key upon which the entire map is constructed.
THE ANTE-NICENE CHURCHES.
During the first three centuries of the Christian era, up to the
Constantinian or Nicene period, there is no country, state or
province which can be safely described as Christian; yet as early
as the second century there is hardly a portion of the Empire
which does not number some Christians in its population. The
subject of the historical geography of the Christian church
during the ante-Nicene period is confined, therefore, to the
locating of these Christian bodies wherever they are to be found.
On this portion of the subject the map makes its own statement.
It is possible merely to elucidate this statement, with the
suggestion, in addition, of a few points which the map does not
and cannot contain.
Concerning the ante-Nicene churches there is only one division
attempted. This division, into the "Apostolic" and
"post-Apostolic," concerns merely the period of their foundation.
Concerning the churches founded in the Apostolic period (33-100),
our knowledge is practically limited to the facts culled from the
Acts, the Epistles and the Apocalypse. The churches of the
post-Apostolic period afford a much wider field for research,
although the materials for study bearing upon them are almost as
inadequate. According to the estimate of the late Professor R. D.
Hitchcock, there were in the Roman Empire at the close of the
persecutions about 1,800 churches, 1,000 in the East and 800 in
the West. Of this total, the cities in which churches have been
definitely located number only 525. They are distributed as
follows: Europe 188, Asia 214, Africa 123 (see volume I, page 443).
Through the labors of Professor Henry W. Hulbert, the locations of
these 525 cities, so far as established, have been cast in
available cartographic form.
It is much to be regretted that, despite the sanction of the
author, it has been found impossible, owing to the limitations of
space, to locate all of these cities in the present map. The
attempt has been limited therefore to the placing of only the
more prominent cities, or those whose location is subject to the
least dispute.
The Apostolic and post-Apostolic churches, as they appear upon
the map, are distinguished by underlines in separate colors. A
special feature has been the insertion of double underlines to
mark the greater centres of diffusion, so far as their special
activity in this respect can be safely assumed. In this class we
have as centres in Apostolic times Jerusalem, Antioch,
Ephesus, Philippi, Thessalonica and Corinth; in
post-Apostolic times, when the widening of the field necessitates
special and limited notices, we may name Alexandria, Edessa,
Rome and Carthage.
The city of Rome contains a Christian community in
Apostolic times, but its activity as a great diffusion centre,
prior to early post-Apostolic times, is a point of considerable
historical controversy. In this respect it occupies a peculiar
position, which is suggested by the special underlines in the
map.
{xv}
CONVERSION OF THE EMPIRE.
The above method of treatment carries us in safety up to the
accession in the West of the first Christian Emperor (311). The
attempt, however, to pursue the same method beyond that period
would involve us at once in insurmountable difficulties.
The exact time of the advent of the Christian-Roman world it is
indeed impossible to define with precision. The Empire after the
time of Constantine was predominantly Christian, yet paganism
still lingered in formidable though declining strength. A map of
religions designed to explain this period, even with unlimited
historical material, could hardly be executed by any system, for
the result could be little better than a chaos, the fragments of
the old religion everywhere disappearing or blending with the
new. The further treatment of the growth of Christianity by
cities or churches is now impossible; for the rapid increase of
the latter has carried the subject into details and intricacies
where it cannot be followed: on the other hand, to describe the
Roman world in the fourth century as a Christian world would be
taking an unwarranted liberty with the plain facts of history.
The last feeble remnants of paganism were in fact burned away in
the fierce heat of the barbaric invasions of the fifth century.
After that time we can safely designate the former limits of the
Roman Empire as the Christian world. From this point we can
resume the subject of church expansion by the "second method"
indicated at the head of this article. But concerning the
transition period of the fourth and fifth centuries, from the
time Christianity is predominant in the Roman world until it
becomes the sole religion of the Roman world, both methods fail
us and the map can tell us practically nothing.
BARBARIANS OF THE INVASION.
Another source of intricacy occurring at this point should not
escape notice. It was in the fourth century that Christianity
began its spread among the barbarian Teutonic nations north of
the Danube. The Goths, located on the Danube, between the
Theiss and the Euxine, were converted to Christianity, in the
form known as Arianism, by the missionary bishop Ulphilas, and
the faith extended in the succeeding century to many other
confederations of the Germanic race. This fact represented, for a
time, the Christianization, whole or partial, of some peoples
beyond the borders of the Empire. With the migrations of the
fifth and sixth centuries, however, these converts, without
exception, carried their new faith with them into the Empire, and
their deserted homes, left open to new and pagan settlers, simply
became the field for the renewed missionary effort of a later
age. It is a historical fact, from a cartographic standpoint a
fortunate one, that, with all the geographic oscillations of this
period between Christianity and paganism, the Christian world
finally emerged with its boundaries conforming, with only a few
exceptions, to the former frontiers of the Roman Empire.
Whether or not this is a historical accident it nevertheless
gives technical accuracy from the geographic standpoint to the
statement that Christianity first made the conquest of the Roman
world; from thence it went out to complete the conquest of
Europe.
CONVERSION OF EUROPE.
With the view, as afforded on the map, of the extent of
Christianity at the commencement of the seventh century, we have
entered definitely upon the "second method." Indeed, in Ireland,
Wales and Scotland, where the Celtic church has already put forth
its missionary effort, the method has, in point of date, been
anticipated; but this fact need cause no confusion in treatment.
Henceforth the spread of Christianity is noted as it made its way
from "people to people." At this point, however, occurs the
greatest intangibility of the subject. The dates given under each
country represent, as stated in the key to the map, "the
approximate periods of conversion." It is not to be inferred,
however, that Christianity was completely unknown in any of these
countries prior to the periods given, or that the work of
conversion was in each case entirely completed within the time
specified. But it is an absolute necessity to give some
definiteness to these "periods of conversion"; to assign with all
distinctness possible the time when each land passed from the
list of pagan to the list of Christian nations. The dates marking
the limits to these periods are perhaps chosen by an arbitrary
method. The basis of their selection, however, has been almost
invariably some salient point, first in the introduction and
finally in the general acceptance of the Christian faith. In
order that the reader may possess the easy means of independent
opinion or critical judgment, the explanation is appended of the
dates thus used, concerning which a question might legitimately
arise.
Goths.
Converted to Arian Christianity by Ulphilas, 341-381.
These dates cover the period of the ministry of Ulphilas,
whose efforts resulted in the conversion of the great body of
the Danubian Goths. He received his ordination and entered
upon his work in 341, and died at Constantinople in 381. (See
C. A. A. Scott's "Ulfilas.")
Suevi, Burgundians and Lombards.
These people, like the Goths, passed from paganism through the
medium of Arian Christianity to final Orthodoxy. Concerning
the first process, it is possible to establish nothing, save
that these Teutonic peoples appeared in the Empire in the
fifth century as professors of the Arian faith. The exact time
of the acceptance of this faith is of less consequence. The
second transition from Arianism to Orthodoxy occurred at a
different time in each case. The Suevi embraced the Catholic
faith in 550; the Visigoths, through their Catholic king
Reccared, were brought within the church at the third council
of Toledo (589). Further north the Burgundians embraced
Catholicism through their king Sigismond in 517, and, finally,
the Lombards, the last of the Arians, accepted Orthodoxy in
the beginning of the seventh century. The Vandals, another
Arian German nation of this period, figured in Africa in the
fourth century.
They were destroyed, however, by the arms of Belisarius in
534, and their early disappearance renders unnecessary their
representation on the present map.
Franks.
Christianity introduced in 496.
This is the date of the historic conversion of Clovis and his
warriors on the battlefield of Tolbiac. The Franks were the
first of the Germanic peoples to pass, as a nation, to
orthodoxy direct from paganism, and their conversion, as we
have seen, was soon followed by the progress from Arianism to
Orthodoxy of the other Germanic nations within the borders of
the Empire.
{xvi}
Ireland.
Christianity introduced by Patrick, 440-493.
St. Patrick entered upon his missionary work in Ireland in
440; he died on the scene of his labors in 493. This period
witnessed the conversion of the bulk of the Irish nation.
Picts.
Christianity introduced from Ireland by Columba, 563-597.
These dates cover the period of St. Columba's ministry. The
work of St. Ninian, the "apostle of the Lowlands" in the
previous century, left very few enduring results. The period
from 563, the date of the founding of the famous Celtic
monastery of Iona, to the death of Columba in 597, witnessed,
however, the conversion of the great mass of the Pictish
nation.
Strathclyde.
Christianity introduced by Kentigern, 550-603.
These dates, like the two preceding, cover the period of the
ministry of a single man, Kentigern, the "apostle of
Strathclyde." The date marking the commencement of Kentigern's
labors is approximate. He died in 603.
England.
The Celtic church had been uprooted in England by the
Anglo-Saxon invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries. While
its missionary efforts were now being expended on Scotland,
Strathclyde, and Cornwall, its pristine seat had thus fallen
away to complete paganism. The Christianization of England was
the work of the seventh century, and in this work the Celtic
church, though expending great effort, was anticipated and
ultimately outstripped by the church of Rome.
Kent.
Christianity introduced by Augustine, 597-604.
These dates cover the ministry of St. Augustine, the apostle
of Kent. This was the first foothold gained by the Roman
church on the soil of Britain.
Northumbria.--627-651.
Edwin (Eadwine), king of Northumbria, received baptism from
the Kentish missionary Paulinus on Easter Eve, 627.
The process of conversion was continued by the Celtic
missionary, Aidin, who died in 651. The Christianity of
Northumbria had begun before the latter date, however, to
influence the surrounding states.
East Anglia.--630-647.
East Anglia had one Christian king prior to this period; but
it was only with the accession of Sigebert (630) that great
progress was made in the conversion of the people. The reign
of king Anna witnesses the practical completion of this work.
In 647 the efforts of this sovereign led to the baptism of
Cenwalch, king of the West Saxons.
Wessex.--634-648.
The conversion of the West Saxons was begun by the missionary
Birinus in 634. The year 648 witnessed the restoration of the
Christian king Cenwalch.
Mercia.--654-670.
Mercia was one of the last of the great English kingdoms to
accept the faith. Their king, Penda, was indeed the most
formidable foe the church encountered in the British Isles.
The conversion of Penda's son Peada admitted the gospel to the
Middle Angles, who accepted Christianity in 653. The East
Saxons embraced the faith at about the same time. Finally in
654 the defeat and death of Penda at the hand of Oswy, the
Christian king of Northumbria, opened the doors of Mercia as
well. The conversion of the realm was practically accomplished
during the next few years.
Sussex.--681.
The leaders of the South Saxons received baptism at the hands
of the apostle Wilfred in 681. Sussex was the last retreat of
paganism on the English mainland, and five years later the
conversion of the inhabitants of the Isle of Wight completed
the spread of Christianity over every portion of the British
Isles.
Frisians.
Christianity introduced by Willibrord, 690-739.
The work of St. Willibrord among the Frisians was one of many
manifestations of the missionary activity of the Celtic
church. Willibrord introduced Christianity among these people
during the years of his ministry, but to judge by the
subsequent martyrdom of Boniface in Friesland (755) the work
of conversion was not fully completed in all quarters until a
later time.
Mission Field of Boniface.--722-755.
The object of the map is not merely to locate the mission
field of the great "apostle of Germany," but also to give the
location and date of the various bishoprics which owed their
foundation to his missionary efforts.
Saxons.--787-805.
Of all the nations converted to Christianity up to this time
the Saxons were the first conquest of the sword. The two most
powerful Saxon chiefs were baptized in 787; but it was not
until their complete defeat and subjugation by Charlemagne in
805 that the work of conversion showed a degree of
completeness. With the Christianization of the Saxons the

cordon of the church was completed around the Germanic
nations.
Moravia.
Christianity introduced by Cyrillus and Methodius, 863-900.
St. Cyrillus, the "apostle of the Slavs," entered upon his
mission in Moravia in 863. The political Moravia of the ninth
century, under Rastislav and Sviatopluk, exceeded greatly the
limits of the modern province; but the missionary labor of the
brothers Cyrillus and Methodius seems to have produced its
principal results in the modern Moravian territory, as
indicated on the map. Methodius, the survivor of the brothers,
died about 900. In the tenth century Moravia figures as
Christian.
Czechs.--880-1039.
The door to Bohemia was first opened from Moravia in the time
of Sviatopluk. The reactions in favor of paganism were,
however, unusually prolonged and violent. Severus, Archbishop
of Prague, finally succeeded in enforcing the various rules of
the Christian cultus (1039).
Poles.--966-1034.
The Polish duke Mieczyslav was baptized in 966. Mieczyslav II.
died in 1034. These dates cover the active missionary time
when, indeed, the efforts of the clergy were backed by the
strong arm of the sovereign. Poland did not, however, become
completely Christian until a somewhat later period.
Bulgarians.--863-900.
The Bulgarian prince Bogoris was baptized in 863. Again, as in
so many other cases, the faith was compelled to pass to the
people through the medium of the sovereign. The second date is
arbitrary, although Bulgaria appears definitely as a Christian
country at the commencement of the tenth century.
Magyars.--950-1050.
Missionaries were admitted into the territory of the Magyars
in 950.
{xvii}
The coronation of St. Stephen, the "apostolic king," (1000)
marked the real triumph of Christianity in Hungary. A number of
pagan reactions occurred, however, in the eleventh century, so
that it is impossible to place the conversion of the Magyars at
an earlier date than the last one assigned.
Russians.--988-1015.
The Russian grand-duke Vladimir was baptized on the occasion
of his marriage to the princess Anne, sister of the Byzantine
Emperor, in 988. Before his death in 1015 Christianity had
through his efforts become the accepted religion of his
people.
Danes.--Converted by Ansgar and his successors, 827-1035.
The Danes had been visited by missionaries prior to the ninth
century, but their work had left no permanent result. The
arrival of Ansgar, the "apostle of the North" (827), marks the
real beginning of the period of conversion. This period in
Denmark was an unusually long one. It was not fully complete
until the reign of Canute the Great (1019-1035).
Swedes (Gothia).
Christianity introduced by Ansgar and his successors, 829-1000.
Ansgar made his first visit to Sweden in 829, two years after
his arrival in Denmark. The period of conversion, as in
Denmark, was a long one; but by the year 1000 the southern
section, Gothia or Gothland, had become Christian. The
conversion of the northern Swedes was not completed for
another century.
Norwegians.--935-1030.
The period of conversion in Norway began with the reign of the
Christian king Hakon the Good. The faith made slow progress,
however, until the reign of Olaf Trygveson, who ascended the
throne near the end of the tenth century. The work of
conversion was completed in the reign of Olaf the Saint
(1014-1030).
Pomeranians.
Christianity introduced by Otho of Bamberg, 1124-1128.
The attempt of the Poles to convert the Pomeranians by the
sword prior to these dates had proven unavailing, and
missionaries had been driven from the country. Within the
short space of four years, however, Otho of Bamberg succeeded
in bringing the great mass of the people within the pale of
the church.
Abotrites.--1125-1162.
The conversion of these people was clearly the work of the
sword. It was accomplished within the time specified by Albert
the Bear, first margrave of Brandenburg, and Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony. The last heathen king became the first
Christian duke of Mecklenburg in 1162. Further south the
kindred Wend nations between the Elbe and the Oder had been
the object of German effort, both missionary and military, for
over two centuries, but had generally come within the church
before this time.
Lives and Prussians.
Christianity introduced by the Sword Brothers, 1202-1236,
and by the Teutonic Knights, 1230-1289.
These conversions, the work of the transplanted military
orders of Palestine, were direct conquests of the sword, and
as such possess a definiteness which is so unfortunately
lacking in so many other cases.
So much for the character and the purpose of the dates which
appear on this map. In the employment of the colors, the periods
covered are longer, and as a consequence the general results are
somewhat more definite. The use of a color system directly over a
date system is intended to afford an immediate though general
view, From this to the special aspects presented by the date
features is a simple step in the development of the subject.
Another feature of the map which may not escape notice is the
different systems used, respectively, in the Roman and Mediæval
period for the spelling of urban names. A development map
covering a long period of history cannot be entirely free from
anachronisms of this nature; but a method has nevertheless been
followed in the spelling of these place names:--to give in each
case the spelling current at the period of conversion. The fact
that the labors of the Christian missionaries were confined
mostly to the Roman world in the Roman period, and did not extend
to non-Roman lands until the Middle Ages, enables us to limit our
spelling of civic names to a double system. The cities of the
Roman and of the Mediæval period are shown on the map and in the
key in two different styles of type. Only in the cases of cities
like Rome, Constantinople and Antioch, where the current form has
the absolute sanction of usage even for classic times, has there
been any deviation from the strict line of this method.
In conclusion, the general features of the subject present
themselves as follows: Had the advance of Christianity, like
Mohammedanism, been by conquest, had the bounds of the Christian
faith been thus rendered ever conterminous with the limits of a
people or an empire, then, indeed, the subject of church
expansion would possess a tangibility and coherency concerning
which exact statement would be possible. The historical geography
of the Christian church would then partake of some of the
precision of political division. But the non-political element in
the Christian cultus deprives us, in the study of the subject, of
this invaluable aid. At a later time, when the conquests of the
soul were backed by the strong arm of power, and when the new
faith, as often happened, passed to the people from the
sovereign, a measure of this exactness is perhaps possible.
We have witnessed an indication of these tendencies in many
cases, as we approached the termination of the period covered by
this map. But the fact remains that the fundamental character of
the Christian faith precludes, in the main, the possibility of
its growth being measured by the rules which govern ordinary
political expansion.
This being then a subject on which definiteness is well nigh
impossible, it has been treated by a method correspondingly
elastic. A working basis for the study of the subject is,
however, afforded by this system. This basis secured, the student
may then systematically pursue his theme.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The historical geography of the Christian church, if studied only
within narrow limits, can be culled from the pages of general
church history. All of these accounts, however, are brief--those
in the smaller histories extremely so. If studied thus, the
reader will derive the most help from:
Neander's "History of the Christian Religion and Church,"
volume I, pages 68-86.
volume II, pages 1-84, 93-129;
Schaff's "History of the Christian Church,"
volume I, pages 224-406,
volume II, pages 13-84,
volume III, pages 10-71,
volume IV, pages 17-142,
Moeller's "History of the Christian Church."
{xviii}
These works may be supplemented by a vast number of books
treating of special phases of church history, though the number
in English dealing specifically with geographical expansion is
very small.
The most recent, dealing with the ante-Nicene period, is Ramsey's
"Church in the Roman Empire before A. D. 170," to which the same
author's "Historical Geography of Asia Minor" forms a most
indispensible prelude.
Entering the mediæval period, the best general guides are the
little books of G. F. Maclear, entitled respectively the
conversion of the Celts, English, Continental Teutons, Northmen
and Slavs. These works may be supplemented by Thomas Smith's
"Mediæval Missions," and for special subjects by G. T. Stokes'
"Ireland and the Celtic Church," W. F. Skene's "Celtic Scotland"
(volume II), and S. Baring Gould's "The Church in Germany."
The texts of the Councils as contained in Harduin, Labbe, and
Mansi are indispensible original aids in the study of church
geography.
Of German Works, J. E. T. Wiltsch's "Atlas Sacer," and the same
author's "Church Geography and Statistics," translated by John
Leitch, have long remained the standard guides for a study of the
historical geography of the church. The Atlas Sacer, containing
five large plates, is the only pure atlas guide to the subject.
The "Church Geography and Statistics," being an ecclesiastical
work, dwells with great fulness on the internal facts of church
geography, but the outward expansion, barring the early growth of
the church, is not so concisely treated. For the history of
mediæval missions the reader will be better served elsewhere. To
the reader using German, C. G. Blumhardt's "Die
Missionsgeschichte der Kirche Christi" (3 volumes, 1828-1837), and
a later work, "Handbuch der Missionsgeschichte und
Missionsgeographie" (2 volumes, 1863), may be noted.
For modern missions there is a very full literature.
Comprehensive works on this subject are Grundemann's "Allgemeine
Missions Atlas," Burkhardt and Grundemann's "Les Missions
Evangéliques" (4 vols.), and in English the "Encyclopædia of
Missions." Several articles in the "Encyclopædia of Missions"
should not escape notice. Among them are "Mediæval Missions," and
the "Historical Geography of Missions," the latter by Dr. Henry
W. Hulbert. The writer is glad at this point to return his thanks
to Dr. Hulbert for the valued aid extended in the location of the
Church of the ante-Nicene period.
A. C. Reiley
{xix}
APPENDIX E.
THE FOLLOWING NOTES AND CORRECTIONS TO MATTER
RELATING TO AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
(PP. 76-108) HAVE BEEN KINDLY MADE BY MAJOR J. W. POWELL
AND MR. J. OWEN DORSEY, OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
Adai.
This tribe, formerly classed as a distinct family--the
Adaizan--is now regarded by the Bureau of Ethnology as but a
part of the Caddoan or Pawnee.
Apache Group.
Indians of different families are here mentioned together:
(A) the Comanches, etc., of the Shoshonean Family;
(B) the Apaches (including the Chiricaguis, or Chiri cahua,
Coyoteros, etc., but excluding the Tejuas who are Tañoan) of
the Athapascan Family, the Navajos of the same family; and
(C) the Yuman Family, including the Cosninos, who are not
Apache (Athapascan stock).
Athapascan Family.
Not an exact synonym of "Chippewyans, Tinneh and Sarcees." The
whole family is sometimes known as Tinneh, though that
appellation is more frequently limited to part of the Northern
group, the Chippewyans. The Surcees are an offshoot of the
Beaver tribe, which latter form part of one of the
subdivisions of the Northern group of the Athapascan Family.
The Sarcees are now with the Blackfeet.
Atsinas (Caddoes).
The Atsinas are not a Caddoan people, but they are Algonquian,
as are the Blackfeet (Sik-sik-a). The Atsinas are the "Fall
Indians," "Minnetarees of the Plains," or "Gros Ventres of the
Plains," as distinguished from the Hidatsa, who are sometimes
called the "Minnetarees of the Missouri," "Gros Ventres of the
Missouri."
Blackfeet or Siksikas.
The Sarcee are a Tinneh or Athapascan tribe, but they are not
the Tinneh (see above). The "Atsina" are not a Caddo tribe
(see above).
Cherokees.
These people are now included in the Iroquoian Family. See
Powell, in Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 79.
Flatheads (Salishan Family).
The "Cherakis," though included among the Flatheads by Force,
are of the Iroquoian Family. The "Chicachas" or Chickasaws,
are not Salishan, but Muskhogean. See Powell, Seventh Annual
Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 95. The Totiris of Force, are
the Tutelos, a tribe of the Siouan Family. See Powell,
Seventh, Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 116. The
Cathlamahs, Killmucks (i. e., Tillamooks), Clatsops, Chinooks
and Chilts are of the Chinookan Family. See Powell, Seventh
Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 65, 66.
Gros Ventres (Minnetaree; Hidatsa).
There are two distinct tribes which are often confounded, both
being known as the Gros Ventres or Minnetarees. 1. The Atsina
or Fall Indians, an Algonquian tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the
Plains," or the "Minnetarees of the Plains." 2. The Hidatsa, a
Siouan tribe, the "Gros Ventres of the Missouri," or the
"Minnetarees of the Missouri." The former, the Atsina, have
been wrongly styled "Caddoes" on page 81.
Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Gros Ventres.
Often confounded with the Atsina, who belong to the Algonquian
Family, the Hidatsa being a tribe of the Siouan Family. The
Hidatsa have been called Gros Ventres, "Big Paunches," but
this nickname could have no reference to any personal
peculiarities of the Hidatsa. It seems to have originated in a
quarrel between some Indians over the big paunch of a buffalo,
resulting in the separation of the people into the present
tribes of Hidatsas and Absarokas or Crows, the latter of whom
now call the Hidatsa, "Ki-kha-tsa," from ki-kha, a paunch.
Hupas.
They belong to the Athapascan Family: the reference to the
Modocs is misleading.
Iroquois Tribes of the South.
"The Meherrins or Tuteloes."
These were not identical, the Tutelos being a Siouan tribe,
the Meherrins being now identified with the Susquehannocks.
Kenai or Blood Indians.
The Kenai are an Athapascan people inhabiting the shores of
Cook's Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula, Southern Alaska; while
the Blood Indians are a division of the Blackfeet (Siksika),
an Algonquian tribe, in Montana.
Kusan Family.
The villages of this family were on Coos River and Bay, and on
both sides of Coquille River, near the mouth. See Powell,
Seventh, Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 80.
ALSO IN:
J. Owen Dorsey, The Gentile System of the
Siletz Tribes, in Journal American Folk-Lore,
July-Sept., 1890, page 231.
Minnetarees.
See above, ATSINA and HIDATSA.
Modocs (Klamaths) and their California and Oregon neighbors.
The Klamaths and Modocs are of the Lutuamian Family; the
Shastas of the Sastean; the Pit River Indians of the
Palaihnihan; the Eurocs of the Weitspekan; the Cahrocs of the
Quoratean; the Hoopahs, Tolewas, and the lower Rogue River
Indians of the Athapascan; the upper Rogue River Indians of
the Takilman.
Muskhogean Family.
The Biloxi tribe is not Muskhogean but Siouan. See Dorsey
(James Owen), "The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana," reprinted
from volume 42, Proc. American Association Advancement
of Science., Madison meeting, 1893.
Natchitoches.
A tribe of the Caddoan Family.
Dorsey (J. Owen), MS. in the Bureau of Ethnology, 1882.
ALSO IN:
Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 61.
Pueblos.
"That Zuni was Cibola it is needless to attempt to prove any
further."
A. F. Bandelier, Journal of American Eth. and Arch., volume 3,
page 19, 1892.
{xx}
Rogue River Indians.
This includes tribes of various families: the upper Rogue
River Indians being the Takelma, who are assigned to a special
family, the Takilman; and the lower Rogue River Indians, who
are Athapascan tribes.
See Dorsey (J. Owen), "The Gentile System of the Siletz
Tribes," in Journal of American Folk-Lore,
July-September., 1890, pages 228, 232-236.
Santees.
Two divisions of the Siouan Family are known by this name: 1.
The I san-ya-ti or Dwellers on Knife Lake, Minnesota,
identical with the Mdewakantonwan Dakota. These figured in the
Minnesota outbreak of 1862. The survivors are in Knox County,
Nebraska, on what was once the Santee reservation, and near
Flandreau, South Dakota. 2. The Santees of South Carolina were
part of the Catawba confederacy. The Santee river is named
after them.
Sarcee.
These are not all of the Tinneh, nor are they really
Blackfeet, though living with them. The Sarcees are an
offshoot of the Beaver Indians, a tribe of one of the
divisions of the Northern group of the Athapascan Family.
Siouan Family.
All the tribes of this family do not speak the Sioux language,
as is wrongly stated on page 103. Those who speak the "Sioux"
language are the Dakota proper, nicknamed Sioux, and the
Assiniboin. There are, or have been, nine other groups of
Indians in this family: to the Cegiha or Dhegiha group belong
the Omahas, Ponkas, Osages, Kansas or Kaws, and Kwapas or
Quapaws; to the Tchiwere group belong the Iowas, Otos, and
Missouris; the Winnebago or Hochangara constitute another
group; the fifth group consists of the survivors of the Mandan
nation; to the sixth group belong the Hidatsa and the
Absarokas or Crows; the Tutelos, Keyauwees, Aconeechis, etc.,
constituted the seventh group; the tribes of the Catawba
confederacy, the eighth; the Biloxis, the ninth; and certain
Virginia tribes the tenth group. The Winnebagos call
themselves Hochangara, or First Speech (not "Trout Nation"),
they are not called Horoje ("fish-eaters") by the Omahas, but
Hu-tan-ga, Big Voices, a mistranslation of Hochangara. The
Dakotas proper sometimes speak of themselves as the "O-che-ti
sha-ko-win," or the Seven Council-fires. Their Algonquian foes
called them Nadowe-ssi-wak, the Snake-like ones, from nadowe,
a snake; this was corrupted by the Canadian French to
Nadouessioux, of which the last syllable is Sioux. The seven
primary divisions of the Dakota are as follow: Mdewakantonwan,
Wakhpekute, Sisitonwan or Sisseton, Wakhpetonwan or Warpeton,
Ihanktonwan or Yankton, Ihanktonwanna or Yanktonnai, and
Titonwan or Teton.
The Sheyennes or Cheyennes, mentioned in connection with the
Sioux by Gallatin and Carver, are an Algonquian people. Gallatin
styles the "Mandanes" a Minnetaree tribe; but as has just been
stated, the survivors of the Mandan nation, a people that
formerly inhabited many villages (according to Dr. Washington
Matthews and others) belong to a distinct group of the Siouan
Family, and the Hidatsa (including the Amakhami or "Annahawas" of
Gallatin) and the Absaroka, Upsaroka or Crows constitute the
sixth group of that family. The "Quappas or Arkansas" of Gallatin
are the Kwapas or Quapaws of recent times. The Osages call
themselves, not "Wausashe," but Wa-sha-she.
Takilman Family.
"The Takilma formerly dwelt in villages along upper Rogue
River, Oregon, all the latter, with one exception, being on
the south side, from Illinois River on the southwest, to Deep
Rock, which was nearer the head of the stream. They are now
included among the 'Rogue River Indians,' and they reside on
the Siletz Reservation, Tillamook County, Oregon, where Dorsey
found them in 1884."
Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
page 121.
They call themselves, Ta-kel-ma
Dorsey.
Dorsey had their chief make a map showing the locations of all
their villages.
{xxi}
[Transcriber's note:
The internet links listed were active at the time of this
production in 2021. The link may be to a different edition than
listed. Most are to archive.org or gutenberg.org,
both excellent repositories of free books.
An internet search (duckduckgo, google, bing, ...) will provide
links to many other sources. These were produced by entering the
author and title, as shown in the list, eg.,
BANCROFT, GEORGE. History of the United States of America, site:archive.org
Without the site restriction (site:archive.org) the search
results are flooded with links to commercial sites, hiding the
actual targets.
Results can be extended by noting the sequence number in a link such as:
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds04banciala
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds05banciala
Try modifying the number for adjacent volumes of the same title.]
APPENDIX F.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
THE BETTER LITERATURE OF HISTORY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
ON SUBJECTS NAMED BELOW.
In the following Classified List, the date of the first
appearance of each one among the older works is given in
parentheses, if ascertained. The period covered by the several
memoirs, and other works limited in time, is stated in
brackets.
AMERICA.
DISCOVERY.
EXPLORATION.
SETTLEMENT.
ARCHÆOLOGY.
ETHNOLOGY.
GENERAL.
BANCROFT, GEORGE.
History of the United States of America, part 1.
(Author's last revision.)
New York: D. Appleton & Company 1883-5. 6 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/historyoftheunit037605mbp
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofusa01bancrich
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofunited32banc
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofusa03bancrich
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds04banciala
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds05banciala
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds06banciala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoftheunit037606mbp
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofuniteds0004banc/page/n7/mode/2up
BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE.
History of the Pacific States of North America:
Central America, volumes 1-2;
Mexico, volumes 1-2.
San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Company 1882-3.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics11bategoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics15bategoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics16bategoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics26bategoog
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics24bategoog
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics13bategoog
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics30bategoog
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics02bategoog
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics23bategoog
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics04bategoog
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics29bategoog
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics03bategoog
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics06bategoog
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics07bategoog
(Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics05bategoog
(Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific13bancrich
(Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific14bancrich
(Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics09bategoog
(Volume 15) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics01bategoog
(Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics10bategoog
(Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historyofpacific17bancrich
(Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics22bategoog
(Volume 18) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics08bategoog
(Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics20bategoog
(Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics27bategoog
(Volume 20) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics31bategoog
(Volume 21) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics17bategoog
(Volume 22) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics18bategoog
(Volume 23) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics28bategoog
(Volume 24) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics19bategoog
(Volume 25) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics26bategoog
(Volume 26) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics12bategoog
(Volume 27) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics21bategoog
(Volume 31) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics25bategoog
(Volume 32) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics15bategoog
(Volume 33) https://archive.org/details/historypacifics14bategoog
BANVARD, REVEREND JOSEPH.
Novelties of the new world.
Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 1851.
https://archive.org/details/noveltiesofnew00banv
BELKNAP, JEREMY.
American biography, volume 1. (1794-8.)
New York: Harper & Brothers. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/americanbiograph185101belk
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_48978
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37965
BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY.
Notes of Americana.
(Bulletins, volume 3. pages 205-209.)
BROWNELL, HENRY.
North and South America Illustrated, from its first discovery.
Hartford: Hurlbut, Kellogg & Company 1800. 2 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/northsouthameric11brow
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/northsouthamill01browrich
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/northandsoutham00browgoog
BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN, and SIDNEY H. GAY.
Popular history of the United States, volume 1.
New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1870-81. 4 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/3704730.1-4
BUMP, C. W.
Bibliographies of America. Baltimore. 1892.
(Johns Hopkins University studies in historical
and political science. 10th series, nos. 10-11. appendix)
CARVER, ELVIRA, and MARA L. PRATT.
Our fatherland. [Juvenile.]
Boston: Educational Publication Company. 1890. volume 1-.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/ourfatherland00carv
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/ourfatherlandvol01carvuoft
FISKE, JOHN.
The discovery of America: with some account of
ancient America and the Spanish conquest.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1892. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/discoveryamerica01fisk
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri02fisk
GORDON, THOMAS F.
History of America, volumes. 1-2;
containing the history of the Spanish discoveries
prior to 1520. Philadelphia. 1832. 2 volumes.
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyamericab00gordgoog
HAKLUYT, RICHARD. collection
Divers voyages touching the discovery of America and
the Islands adjacent (1582); with notes by John W. Jones.
London: Hakluyt Society. 1850.
https://archive.org/details/diversvoyagesto00thorgoog
HARRISSE, HENRY.
The discovery of North America: a critical, documentary,
and historic investigation.
London: H. Stevens & Son. 1892.
HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH.
A book of American explorers.
Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1877.
Larger history of the United States of America, chapters 1-5.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1880.
HOLMES, ABIEL.
The annals of America, 1492-1826 (1805); 2d edition.
Cambridge: Hilliard & Brown. 1829. 2 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/annalsamer00holmrich
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalsamerica02holmgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_47269
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/americanannals00unkngoog
HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON.
Cosmos (1845-58), translated by E. C. Otté,
part 2, section 6 (volume 2).
London: H. Bohn. 1847-58. 5 volumes
(Audio) https://archive.org/details/cosmos_1603_librivox
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cosmosasketchap00dallgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cosmossketchofph0002humb/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/cosmosofph03humbrich
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/sketchofphcosmos04humbrich
New York: Harper & Brothers 1850-. 5 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/cosmos01humbgoog
KERR, ROBERT, ed.
General history and collection of voyages and travels (1811-1824).
volumes 1-6.
Edinburgh: W. Blackwood. 18 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory06kerrgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryco02kerrrich
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory02kerrgoog
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_zb46AAAAIAAJ
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory07kerrgoog
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory08kerrgoog
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/generalhistoryco05kerrrich
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory15kerrgoog
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory10kerrgoog
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory12kerrgoog
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory09kerrgoog
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory11kerrgoog
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory04kerrgoog
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.18187
(Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory14kerrgoog
(Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory05kerrgoog
(Volume 15) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory13kerrgoog
(Volume 18) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory10unkngoog/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 18) https://archive.org/details/ageneralhistory03kerrgoog
KINGSLEY, CHARLES.
The first discovery of America.
(Lectures delivered in America in 1874.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1875.
Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. 1875.)
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1360
https://archive.org/details/lecturesdelivere00king
LODGE, H. C.
Gravier's Découverte de l'Amérique.
(North American Review 119: 166. 1874.)
MACGREGOR, JOHN.
Progress in America.
London: Whittaker & Company. 1847. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/progressofameric01macguoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/progressamerica02macggoog
MACKENZIE, ROBERT.
America; a history.
London: Nelson & Sons. 1882.
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.87679
MAVOR, WILLIAM.
Historical account of the most celebrated voyages.
volumes 1 and 17.
London: 1790-7. 20 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou01conggoog/page/n9/mode/2up
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou02conggoog/page/n6/mode/2up
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou13conggoog
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37601
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37604
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalacc03mavogoog
(Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou11conggoog
(Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou09conggoog
(Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou17mavogoog
(Volume 19) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou09mavogoog
(Volume 20) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37614
(Volume 21) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37615
(Volume 22) https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalacc10mavogoog
(Volume 23) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37617
(Volume 24) https://archive.org/details/historicalaccou08mavogoog/page/n8/mode/2up
(Volume 24) https://archive.org/details/cihm_37618
PALFREY, JOHN G.
History of New England, volume 1, chapter 2.
Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1858-90.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historynewengla23palfgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl02palf
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl0002palf/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofnewengl00palf
PAYNE, EDWARD JOHN.
History of the new world called America.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1892-. volume 1-.
New York: Macmillan & Company. 1892-. volume 1-.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/histnewworld01paynrich
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/histnewworld02paynrich
PINKERTON, JOHN, ed.
General collection of the best and most interesting
voyages and travels, volume 14.
London: Longman. 1808-14. 17 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_18698
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio01pink
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio02pink
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio04pink
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio04pinkuoft
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/ageneralcollect05pinkgoog/page/n15/mode/2up
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/cihm_18703
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio07pink
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/ageneralcollect03unkngoog/page/n11/mode/2up
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio09pink
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio10pink
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio11pink
(Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio12pink
(Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/generalcollectio14pink
(Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.5489
(Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.1668
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM.
History of America (1777-96).
(Works, volumes 6-8.
Oxford: Talboys & Wheeler. 1825.)
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyamerica12robegoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/americarobertson00willrich/page/n3/mode/2up
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyamericab00robegoog
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica03robe
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyamerica01unkngoog
SCAIFE, WALTER B.
America, its geographical history, 1492-1892.
(Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and
political science, extra volume 13.) Baltimore. 1892.
https://archive.org/details/americaitsgeogra00scairich
SNOWDEN, RICHARD.
History of North and South America, from its discovery
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Philadelphia: B. Warner. 2 volumes.
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STEVENS, HENRY.
Historical and geographical notes on the earliest
discoveries in America, 1453-1530.
London: Henry Stevens. 1869.
New Haven: American Journal of Science. 1869.
https://archive.org/details/historicalandge00stevgoog
WILLSON, MARCIUS.
American history.
New York: Mark H. Newman & Company. 1847.
https://archive.org/details/americanhistory00will
WINSOR, JUSTIN.
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https://archive.org/details/jstor-196715/page/n11/mode/2up
Editor, Narrative and critical history of America
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company 1886. 8 volumes.
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(Volume 1, 1)https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica51wins
(Volume 1, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica12wins
(Volume 2 )https://archive.org/details/narrcrithistamerica02winsrich
(Volume 2, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica21wins
(Volume 2, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica22wins
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0003wins/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 3, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica31wins
(Volume 3, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica32wins
(Volume 4 ) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica04wins
(Volume 4, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica41wins
(Volume 4, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica42wins
(Volume 5 ) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0005wins/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 5, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica52wins
(Volume 6, 1) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica61wins
(Volume 6, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica62wins/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0007wins/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 7, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica72wins
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica0008wins/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 8, 2) https://archive.org/details/narrativecritica82wins
YATES, JOHN V. N., and MOULTON, JOS. W.
History of the state of New York, volume 1, part 1.
New York: A. T. Goodrich. 1924-6. 2 volumes.
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(Part 2)https://archive.org/details/historyofstateof02moul/page/n3/mode/2up
PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES.
ANDERSON, RASMUS B.
America not discovered by Columbus.
Chicago: S. C. Griggs & Company. 1874.
https://archive.org/details/americanotdiscov00andeiala
BEAMISH, NORTH LUDLOW.
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London: T. & W. Boone 1841.
https://archive.org/details/discoveryameric00beamgoog
BOWEN, Reverend BENJ. F.
America discovered by the Welsh in 1170. A. D.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 1876.
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DALL, W. H.
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DAVIS, ASAHEL.
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Rochester: D. Hoyt. 1839.
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DE COSTA, Reverend BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, editor.
The pre-Columbian discovery of America by the Northmen,
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Albany: Joel Munsell. 1868.
https://archive.org/details/precolumbiandisc00deco
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41221
{xxii}
DIMAN, J. L.
De Costa's Pre-Columbian discovery of America,
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http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/41221
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY THE NORTHMEN.
(Atlantic Monthly, 54: 282. 1884.)
DU BOIS, B. H.
Did the Norse discover America?
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ELLIOTT, CHARLES W.
The New England history, chapter 1.
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https://archive.org/details/newenglandhisto04elligoog
EVERETT, EDWARD.
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FISKE, JOHN.
How America came to be discovered.
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HIGGINSON, THOMAS W.
The visit of the Vikings,
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HORSFORD, EBEN NORTON.
The problem of the Northmen.
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LEGENDS OF OLD America.
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LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY.
The ante-Norse discoverers of America
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Fusang: or the discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist
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MAJOR, RICHARD HENRY.
The life of prince Henry of Portugal,
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London: A. Asher & Company, 1868.
https://archive.org/details/lifeofprincehenr00majo
On the voyages of the Venetian brothers Zeno.
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London: Hakluyt Society. 1873.
https://archive.org/details/voyagesofvenetia00zenorich
ONDERDONK, J. L.
Pre-Columbian discoveries of America,
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PILON, M. R.
Visits of Europeans to America
in the 10th and 11th centuries.
(Potter's American Monthly, 5: 903. 1875.)
RANKING, JOHN,
Historical researches on the conquest of Peru, Mexico, etc.,
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REEVES, ARTHUR MIDDLETON.
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https://archive.org/details/winelandthegood00reevrich
ROPES, A. R.
Early explorations of America, real and imaginary.
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SHORT, JOHN T.
Claims to the discovery of America
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SLAFTER, Rev. EDMUND F.
The discovery of America by the Northmen 985-1015:
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https://archive.org/details/winelandthegood00reevrich
Editor. Voyages of the Northmen to America; including extracts from
the Icelandic sagas in an English translation by N. L. Beamish,
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SMITH, JOSHUA TOULMIN.
The discovery of America by the Northmen In the 10th century;
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London: William S. Orr & Company 1842.
https://archive.org/details/discoveryofameri00smit
SOUTHEY, ROBERT.
Madoc (1805).
London: Longmans.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/madoc00soutgoog/page/n6/mode/2up
STEPHENS, THOMAS.
Madoc; an essay on the discovery of America by
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STORM, GUSTAV.
Studies on the Vineland voyages.
Copenhagen: Thiele. 1889.
VINING, EDWARD P.
An inglorious Columbus; or, evidence that Hwui Shán
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New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1885.
https://archive.org/details/ingloriouscolumb00vini
VOYAGES TO VINLAND, THE; from the saga of Eric the red.
Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.
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https://archive.org/details/cihm_07112/page/n5/mode/2up
WATSON, PAUL B.
Bibliography of the pre-Columbian discoveries of America.
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WINSOR, JUSTIN.
America prefigured: an address at Harvard, October 21, 1892.
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https://archive.org/details/prefiguredamerica00winsrich/page/4/mode/2up
COLUMBUS
ADAMS, CHARLES KENDALL.
Christopher Columbus, his life and work.
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New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. 1892.
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54929
https://archive.org/details/christophercolum00adamrich
Some recent discoveries concerning Columbus.
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ADAMS, HERBERT B., and HENRY WOOD.
Columbus and his discovery of America.
(Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political
science, 10th series, Numbers 10-11,)
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https://archive.org/details/columbusandhisd00woodgoog
BLIND, K.
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CASTELAR, EMILIO.
Christopher Columbus.
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https://archive.org/details/centuryillustrat44newyuoft
COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER.
Journal, 1492-3; and documents relating to the voyages of John
[and Sebastian] Cabot and Gaspar Corte Real; translated by
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London: Hakluyt Society. 1893.
https://archive.org/details/cihm_05312
The letter on the discovery of America; a facsimile
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Printed by the Lenox Library. New York. 1882.
https://archive.org/details/letterofcolumbus00colum
Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, 1493.
Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.
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https://archive.org/details/spanishletterco00kerngoog
Select letters, with other original documents; translated
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London: Hakluyt Society. 1847.
Writings descriptive of the discovery and occupation
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New York: C. L. Webster & Company. 1892.
COLUMBUS, FERDINAND.
The discovery of America; from the life of Columbus.
Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.
(Old South leaflets, general series, No. 29.)
ELTON, CHARLES.
The career of Columbus.
New York: Cassell Publishing Company. 1892.
https://archive.org/details/careercolumbus00eltogoog
GOODRICH, AARON.
History of the character and achievements of the
so-called Christopher Columbus.
New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1874.
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HELPS, Sir ARTHUR, and H. P. Thomas.
Life of Columbus.
London: Bell & Daldy. 1869.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15336
IRVING, WASHINGTON.
Life and voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828);
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New York: G. P. Putnam. 3 volumes.
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8519
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoflifeand01irviiala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoflifeand02irviiala
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyoflifeand03irviiala
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/lifeandvoyagesc05irvigoog
LORGUES, ROSELLY DE.
Life of Christopher Columbus, from Spanish and Italian
documents; comp. from the French by J. J. Barry.
Boston: P. Donahoe. 1870.
https://archive.org/details/lifeofchristophe00rose
MACKIE, CHARLES PAUL.
The last voyages of the Admiral of the Ocean Sea,
as related by himself and his companions.
Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Company. 1892.
https://archive.org/details/lastvoyagesadmi00paulgoog
MACKINTOSH, J.
The discovery of America by Columbus and the
origin of the North American Indians.
Toronto. 1836.
https://archive.org/details/discoveryameric00mcingoog
MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R.
Life of Christopher Columbus.
London: George Philip & Son. 1892.
https://archive.org/details/cu31924020393413
MAURY, M.
An examination of the claims of Columbus.
(Harper's Magazines, 42: 425, 527. 1871.)
OBER, FREDERICK A.
In the wake of Columbus; adventures of the special
commissioner sent by the World's Columbian Exposition
to the West Indies.
Boston: D. Lothrop Company. 1893.
https://archive.org/details/inwakecolumbusa00obergoog
SEELYE, ELIZABETH EGGLESTON.
The story of Columbus; with introduction by Edward Eggleston.
New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1892.
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SPALDING, J. L.,
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TARDUCCI, FRANCESCO.
The life of Christopher Columbus;
translated from the Italian by H. F. Brownson.
Detroit: H. F. Brownson. 1890. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifechriscolum01tardrich
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifechristopher00browgoog
WINSOR, JUSTIN.
Christopher Columbus, and how he received and imparted
the spirit of discovery.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1891.
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.158654
Columbiana. (Nation, 52: 297. 1891.)
POST-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES.
ARBER, EDWARD. editor.
The first three English books on America (?1511)-1555 A. D.;
being chiefly translations, compilations, &c., by
Richard Eden, from the writings of Pietro Martire,
Sebastian Münster, Sebastian Cabot.
Birmingham. 1885.
https://archive.org/details/firstthreeenglis00arberich
ASHER, G. M., editor
Henry Hudson the navigator: original documents in which
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London: Hakluyt Society. 1860.
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BIDDLE, RICHARD.
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BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY.
America in the 16th century
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Early English explorations in America
(bibliographical note in Bulletins, volume 3, pages 241-244).
Early explorations in America
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{xxiii}
BREVOORT, J. C.

Verrazano the navigator [from report of the American
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New York. 1874.
https://archive.org/details/verrazanonavigator00brevrich
CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE.
Voyages (1603-1610): translated Charles P. Otis, [editor]
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Boston: Prince Society. 1878-82. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_26911
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/voyagessamuelde00massgoog
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/voyagessamuelde00unkngoog
DE VRIES. D. P.
Extracts from the voyages; translated from a
Dutch ms. in the Philadelphia Library, by Dr. G.
Troost. (Collections of the New York Historical Society.,
2d series, volume 1.
New York. 1841.)
Voyages from Holland to America, 1632-1644;
translated by H. C. Murphy. (Collections of the New
York Historical Society, 2d series, volume 3.
New York. 1857.)
https://archive.org/details/cu31924028729402/page/n25/mode/2up
FISKE, JOHN.
The romance of the Spanish and French explorers.
(Harper's Magazines, 64: 438. 1882.)
FORCE, M. F.
Some observations on the letters of Amerigo Vespucci (1879).
Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company 1885.
https://archive.org/details/someobservation01forcgoog
HAKLUYT, RICHARD, editor.
The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and
discoveries of the English nation
(1589); edited by E. Goldsmid. volume 12-15.
Edinburgh: E. & G. Goldsmid. 1889-90.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.178849
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat02hakluoft
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/principalnaviga00haklgoog
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/principalnaviga06hakl
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/principalnaviga00unkngoog
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/cihm_33125
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat10hakl
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat11hakl
(Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/principalnavigat12hakl
(Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/theprincipalnavi25645gut
(Volume 13) https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25645/
(Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/cihm_33132
HIGGINSON, THOMAS W.
The old English seamen.
(Harper's Mag., 66: 217. 1883)
The Spanish discoverers.
(Harper's Magazine. 65: 729. 1882.)
HUDSON, HENRY.
Divers voyages and northern discoveries.
(Purchas his pilgrimes, volume 3.
Collections of the New York Historical Society, volume 1.
New York. 1811.)
JUET, ROBERT.
Extract from the journal of the voyage
of the Half-Moon, Henry Hudson, master, 1609.
(Collections of the New York Historical Society,
2d series, volume 1.
New York. 1841.)
http://halfmoon.mus.ny.us/Juets-journal.pdf
KOHL, J. G.
History of the discovery of Maine; with
an appendix on the voyages of the Cabots.
(Collections of the Maine Historical Society.,
2d series, volume 1.
Portland: 1869.)
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofdiscove00kohl
LESTER, C. EDWARDS, and A. FOSTER.
Life and voyages of Americus Vespucius.
New York: Baker & Scribner. 1846.
https://archive.org/details/lifeandvoyages00lestrich/page/n3/mode/2up
https://archive.org/details/lifevoyagesofame00lestiala
https://archive.org/details/cu31924020421867
NICHOLLS, J. F.
Remarkable life, adventures and discoveries of Sebastian Cabot.
London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston. 1869.
https://archive.org/details/remarkablelifead00nich
PARKMAN, FRANCIS.
Pioneers of France in the New World.
Boston: Little. Brown & Company. 1865.
https://archive.org/details/pioneers_of_france_in_new_world_0908_librivox1
PAYNE, EDWARD JAMES.
Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America;
13 original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt.
London: Thomas de la Rue & Company. 1880.
https://archive.org/details/voyagesofelizabe02hakluoft
READ, JOHN MEREDITH, Jr.
Historical inquiry concerning Henry Hudson.
Albany: J. Munsell. 1866.
https://archive.org/details/historicalinquir00readuoft
SANTAREM, Viscount. Researches respecting Americus
Vespucius and his voyages (1842); translated by E. V. Childe.
Boston: C. C. Little & Jas. Brown. 1850.
https://archive.org/details/researchesrespe02conggoog
STANLEY OF ALDERLEY. Lord.
The first voyage round the world, by Magellan; translated from
the accounts of Pigafetta and other contemporary writers; with
documents, notes, etc.
London: Hakluyt Society. 1874.
https://archive.org/details/firstvoyageround00piga
TARDUCCI, FRANCESCO.
John and Sebastian Cabot, biographical notice, with documents;
translated from the Italian by Henry F. Brownson.
Detroit: H. F. Brownson. 1893.
https://archive.org/details/johnsebast00tardrich
TOWLE, GEORGE M.
Magellan.
Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1880.
https://archive.org/details/magellan00towl/page/n5/mode/2up
VERRAZANO, JOHN DE. The relation of.
(Collections of the New York Historical Society., volume 1.
New York. 1811.)
The same: a new translation, by J. G. Cogswell.
(Collections of the New York Historical Society,
2d series, volume 1.
New York. 1841.)
Voyage, 1524.
(Old South leaflets, general series, No. 17.)
Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.
VESPUCCI, AMERIGO.
Account of his first voyage; letter to Pier Soderini.
(Old South leaflets, general series, No. 34.)
Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.
The first four voyages; reprinted in facsimile and
translated from the rare original edition. (1505-6).
London: Bernard Quaritch. 1893.
https://archive.org/details/lettersofamerigo00vesp
https://archive.org/details/lettersofamerigo00vesprich
VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS, THE.
From Hakluyt's "Principal navigations."
Boston: D. C. Heath & Company.
(Old South leaflets, general series, No. 37.)
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION.
ANDAGOYA, PASCUAL DE.
Narrative of the proceedings of Pedrarias Davila [1514-1541];
translated and edited by C. R. Markham.
London: Hakluyt Society. 1865.
https://archive.org/details/narrativeofproce00anda
BANDELIER, ADOLF F. A.
Discovery of New Mexico [Cibola] by Fray Marcos of Nizza.
(Magazine of Western History, 4: 659. 1886.)
BENZONI, GIROLAMO.
History of the new world, shewing his travels in America,
1541-1556; translated and edited by W. H. Smyth.
London: Hakluyt Society. 1857.
https://archive.org/details/historynewworld00smytgoog/page/n10/mode/2up
BLACKMAR, FRANK W.
Spanish Institutions of the southwest.
Baltimore. 1801. (Johns Hopkins University studies in
history and political science. Extra volume 10.)
https://archive.org/details/spanishinstituti00blac
CHARLEVOIX, Father F. P. X. DE.
History of Paraguay (1756);
[translated from the French].
London: L. Davis. 1769. 2 volumes.
(French) https://archive.org/details/histoireduparag04chargoog
(English) https://books.google.com/books?id=40sIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
CHEVALIER, MICHEL.
Mexico, ancient and modern; translated by T. Alpass.
London: J. Maxwell & Company. 1864. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000251625/page/n3/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/mexicoancientan01alpagoog
CIEZA DE LEON, PEDRO DE.
Travels, A. D. 1532-50, contained in the first and
second parts of his Chronicle of Peru (1553-):
translated an edited by C. R. Markham.
London: Hakluyt Society 1864-83.
https://archive.org/details/travelsofpedrode33ciez/page/n31/mode/2up
CLAVIGERO, Abbé D. FRANCESCO SAVERIO.
History of Mexico, collected from Spanish and Mexican
historians, from MSS. and ancient paintings of the Indians;
translated from the Italian by Charles Cullen.
Philadelphia: Thomas Dobson. 1804. 3 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/historyofmexicoc03clav
CORTEZ, HERNANDO.
Despatches addressed to the emperor Charles V. during
the conquest: translated from the Spanish, with
introduction and notes by George Folsom.
New York: Wiley & Putnam. 1843.
https://archive.org/details/despatchesofhern0cort
DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL.
Memoirs, containing a true and full account of the
discovery and conquest of Mexico and New Spain (1612):
translated from the Spanish by John I. Lockhart.
London: J. Hatchard & Son. 1844. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofconquis01dauoft
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/memoirsconquist01lockgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.40349/page/n3/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofconquis02di
DISCOVERY and conquest of Terra Florida, by Don Fernando de Solo;
written by a gentleman of Elvas (1557), and translated out of
Portuguese by Richard Hakluyt: edited by W. B. Rye.
London: Hakluyt Society 1851.
https://archive.org/details/discoveryandcon00haklgoog
FANCOURT, CHARLES. ST. J.
History of Yucatan.
London: J. Murray. 1854.
https://archive.org/details/historyofyucatan00fanc
HELPS, Sir ARTHUR.
Life of Hernando Cortes.
London: Bell & Son. 1871. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifehernandocor00goog/page/n9/mode/2up
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.85399/page/ii/mode/2up
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifeofhernandoco01helpuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifeofhernandoco02helpuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.86033
Life of Las Casas.
London: Bell & Son. 1868.
https://archive.org/details/lifeoflascasasth00help/page/n7/mode/2up
Life of Pizarro.
London: Bell & Son. 1869.
https://archive.org/details/lifeofpizarrowit00help
The Spanish conquest In America.
London: Parker & Son. (1855-61.)
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1867. 4 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/spanishconquesti01helpuoft
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/spanishconquest00conggoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/spanishconquest06oppegoog
(Volume 3) https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/agf7071.0003.001
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/spanish_conquest_in_america_vol4/page/n3/mode/2up
IRVING, THEODORE.
History of De Soto's conquest of Florida (1835).
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/conquestflorida01irvigoog
MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R.
History of Peru, chapters 1-4.
Chicago: C. H. Sergel & Co. 1892.
https://archive.org/details/ahistoryperu01markgoog
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London: Hakluyt Society 1872.
https://archive.org/details/reportsondiscove04mark
MAYER, BRANTZ.
Mexico, Aztec, Spanish and republican, book. 1.
Hartford: S. Drake & Company. 1851. 2 volumes.
https://books.google.com/books/about/Mexico_Aztec_Spanish_and_republican.html?id=4QNQAQAAIAAJ
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/mexicoaztecspan01mayegoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/mexicoaztecspani02maye
RESCOTT, WILLIAM H.
History of the conquest of Mexico (1843);
edited by J. F. Kirk.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/conquestofmexico01presrich
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/conquestmexico02presuoft
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyconmex03pres
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques04pres
History of the conquest of Peru (1847);
edited by J. F. Kirk.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques01presiala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques02presiala
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofconques03presiala
RAYNAL, Abbé.
A philosophical and political history of the settlements and
trade of the Europeans in the east and west Indies (1770);
translated from the French by J. O. Justamond.
London. 1788. 8 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol01rayn
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol02rayn
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol03rayn
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol04rayn
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol06rayn
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol05rayn
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol07rayn
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpol08rayn/
RIVERO, M. E., and TSCHUDI, J. J. VON.
Peruvian antiquities:
translated from the Spanish by F. L. Hawks.
New York: G. P. Putnam & Company. 1853.
https://archive.org/details/peruvianantiqui01tschgoog/page/n10/mode/2up
SIMPSON, J. H.
Coronado's march in search of the "Seven cities of Cibola."
Washington. 1871.
https://archive.org/details/coronadosmarchin00simprich/page/n11/mode/2up
SOLIS, Don ANTONIO DE
History of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards (1684);
translated from the Spanish by T. Townsend,
revised and corrected by N. Hook.
London: T. Woodward. 1738. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://books.google.com/books/about/The_History_of_the_Conquest_of_Mexico.html?id=ejQVAAAAQAAJ
SOUTHEY, ROBERT.
History of Brazil, volume 1.
London: Longman. 1810-19. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil01sout
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil02sout
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofbrazil03sout
SOUTHEY, THOMAS.
Chronological history of the West Indies, volume 1.
London: Longman. 1827. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/chronologicalhis01sout
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/chronologicalhis02sout
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/chronologicalhis03sout
TOWLE, GEORGE M.
Pizarro.
Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1879.
https://archive.org/details/pizarrohisadvent00towlrich/page/n5/mode/2up
TYLOR, EDWARD B.
Anahuac; or Mexico and the Mexicans, ancient and modern.
London: Longman, Green & Company. 1861.
https://archive.org/details/b24883360
WASHBURN, CHARLES A.
History of Paraguay, chapters 1-4.
Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1871. 2 volumes.
(volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofparagua01washuoft/page/n3/mode/2up
(volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofparagua02wash
WATSON, ROBERT G.
The Spanish and Portuguese in South America during
the colonial period, volume 1.
London: Trübner & Company. 1884. 2 volumes.
(volume 1) https://archive.org/details/spanishportugues01watsuoft
(volume 1) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50990
(volume 2) https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52252
WILSON, ROBERT A.
A new history of the conquest of Mexico, in which
Las Casas' denunciations of the popular historians
of that war are vindicated.
Philadelphia: Jas. Challen & Son. 1859.
https://archive.org/details/anewhistoryconq00goog
{xxiv}
ENGLISH AND FRENCH COLONIZATION.
ACRELIUS, ISRAEL.
History of New Sweden. (Memoirs of the Pennsylvania
Historical Society, volume 11.
Philadelphia. 1876.)
https://archive.org/details/historyofnewswed11acre
https://archive.org/details/historyofnewswed00acre
https://archive.org/details/cihm_12822/page/n5/mode/2up
ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS.
Three episodes of Massachusetts history.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1892 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/threeepisodesofm01adamuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/threeepisodesofm02adam
BAYLIES, FRANCIS.
Historical memoir of the colony of New Plymouth (1830).
Boston: Wiggin & Lunt. 1866. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalmemoir11bayl
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historicalmemoir02bayl
BEVERLEY, ROBERT.
History of Virginia (1705).
Richmond: J. W. Randolph. 1855.
https://archive.org/details/historyvirginia00campgoog
BOZMAN, JOHN LEEDS
History of Maryland, 1633-1660.
Baltimore: Lucas & Deaver. 1837 (introduction 1811.)
Baltimore: John Murphy & Co.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofmarylan00bozm
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historymaryland02bozmgoog
BRADFORD, WILLIAM.
History of Plymouth Plantation.
(Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society,
4th series, volume 3. Boston. 1856.)
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofplymout1162brad
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historymaryland02bozmgoog
BRIDGES, GEORGE W.
Annals of Jamaica, volume 1.
London: J. Murray. 1827. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalsofjamaica01briduoft
(Volume 2 )https://archive.org/details/annalsjamaica05bridgoog
BRODHEAD, JOHN R., editor Documents relating to the colonial history
of the state of New York.
Albany. 1856-87. 14 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ01brod
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ02brod/page/n9/mode/2up
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ03brod/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ04brod/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ05brod/page/n9/mode/2up
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ06brod/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ07brod/page/n9/mode/2up
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ08brod/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ09brod/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ10brod/page/n7/mode/2up
History of the state of New York, volume 1.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1853. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ01brod
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ02brod
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ03brod
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ04b/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ05brod/
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ06brod/
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ07brod/
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ08brod/
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ09brod/
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ10brod/
(Index) https://archive.org/details/documentsrelativ11brod/page/n7/mode/2up
BROWN, ALEXANDER editor
The genesis of the United States historical mss. and tracts, with notes, etc.].
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1890. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/genesisofuniteds01brow
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/genesisofuniteds02brow
BROWN, WILLIAM HAND, editor.
Archives of Maryland.
Baltimore. 1883-.
https://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000021/html/am21p--1.html
Has links to other volumes.
BURKE, EDMUND.
An account of the European settlements in America.
London: R. & J. Dodsley. 1757. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/accountofeuropea01burk
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/accountofeuropea02burk
BURY, Viscount.
Exodus of the western nations.
London: Richard Bentley. 1865. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/exodusofwesternn01albeuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/exodusofwesternn02albeuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.82499
CAMPBELL, CHARLES.
Introduction to the history of the colony and
ancient dominion of Virginia.
Richmond: D. B. Minor. 1847.
https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00campb
History of the colony and ancient dominion of Virginia.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company.
https://archive.org/details/historyofcolonya00camp
CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS.
The Puritan in Holland, England and America.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1892. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/puritaninholland01camp
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/puritaninholland02camp
CARROLL, B. R., editor.
Historical collections of South Carolina.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1836. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalcolle00carrgoog/page/n9/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historicalcolle02carrgoog/page/n6/mode/2up
CHARLEVOIX, Father PIERRE F. X. DE.
History and general description of New France (1744):
translated, with notes, by John G. Shea.
New York: J. G. Shea. 1866-7.2. 6 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_32251
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_32765
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historygeneralde03char
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historygeneralde04char
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historygenerald05achar
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historygeneralde06char
CHEEVER, GEORGE B., editor Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth in 1620.
New York: J. Wiley. 1848.
https://archive.org/details/journalofpilgrim00mouruoft
DALTON, HENRY G.
History of British Guiana, chapter 2.
London: Longmans. 1855. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg01daltgoog
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg02daltgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg03daltgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historybritishg00daltgoog/page/n10/mode/2up
DOUGLASS, WILLIAM.
Summary, historical and political, of the British settlements
in North America.
London: R. Baldwin. 1755. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/summaryhistorica01doug/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-rbsc_lc_summary-historical-political_Lande00193_v2-15869
DOYLE, JOHN A.
The American colonies (Arnold prize essay).
London: Rivingtons. 1869.
The English In America: Virginia.
Maryland and the Carolinas (1882).
The Puritan colonies (1887), 2 volumes.
London: Longmans, Green & Company.
New York: Henry Holt & Co.
https://archive.org/details/englishcoloniesi01doyl
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/englishcoloniesi03doyl
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/englishcoloniesi04doyl/page/n7/mode/2up/page/n7/mode/2up
DRAKE, SAMUEL ADAMS.
The making of New England, 1580-1643.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1886.
https://archive.org/details/makingofnewengla00drakrich
The making of Virginia and the middle colonies.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1893.
https://archive.org/details/makingofvirginia00drak
DRAKE, SAMUEL G.
History and antiquities of Boston, 1630-1770.
Boston: L. Stevens. 1856.
https://archive.org/details/historyantiquiti00dra
EDWARDS, BRYAN.
History, civil and commercial, of the British colonies
in the West Indies. [Caribs, etc.]
London: J. Stockdale. 1793-1801. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_44458
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historycivilcomm04edwa
https://archive.org/details/historycivilcomm06edwa/page/n5/mode/2up
FERRIS, BENJAMIN.
History of the original settlements on the Delaware.
Wilmington: Wilson & Heald. 1846.
https://archive.org/details/historyoforigina00ferr
FISHER. GEORGE P.
The colonial era (American History series).
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1892.
(1906) https://archive.org/details/colonialera00fishuoft
(1910) https://archive.org/details/colonialerabygeo00fish
FISKE, JOHN.
The beginnings of New England.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1889.
(1897) https://archive.org/details/beginningsofne00fisk
FORCE, PETER. editor.
Tracts and other papers relating principally to the origin,
settlement and progress of the colonies in North America.
Washington. 1886-47. 4 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper01forc
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper02forc
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper1844forc
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/tractsotherpaper04forc
GAYARRÉ, CHARLES.
History of Louisiana; the French domination (1851-4).
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{xxv}
AMERICAN ARCHÆOLOGY.
ABBOTT, CHARLES. C.
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BANDELIER, ADOLF
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Zuni social, mythic and religious systems.
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Indian migrations, as evidenced by language; comprising the
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Chicago. 1883.
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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
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HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER von.
Researches concerning the Institutions and monuments of the
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JACKSON, W. H.
Ancient ruins in southwestern Colorado.
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JONES, CHARLES C. Jr.
Antiquities of the southern Indians, particularly of the
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New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1873.
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JONES, JOSEPH
Explorations of the aboriginal remains of Tennessee (1876).
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Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1891-.
KINGSBOROUGH, Lord.
Antiquities of Mexico: comprising fac-similes of ancient
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London. R. Havell. 1830-48. 9 volumes.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexiv2King
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(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/AntiquitiesMexi6King
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LAPHAM, I. A.
The antiquities of Wisconsin (1853),
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The mound builders.
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NADAILLAC, Marquis de.
Prehistoric America (1882);
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Ancient civilizations of America.
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PEET, Reverend STEPHEN D.
Prehistoric America.
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The mound builders, volume 2.
Emblematic mounds and animal effigies.
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https://archive.org/details/prehistoricameri03peet
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Prehistoric man in America.
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PUTNAM, F. W.
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RAU, CHARLES.
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https://archive.org/details/palenquetabletin00rauc
{xxvi}
READ, Matthew Canield
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REISS, W., and A. STÜBEL.
The necropolis of Ancon in Peru.
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RIO, Don ANTONIO DEL.
Description of the ruins of an ancient city, discovered near
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RIVERO, MARIANO EDW., and JOHN JAMES VON TSCHUDI.
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ST. LOUIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE.
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The North Americans of antiquity; their origin, migrations and
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STEPHENS, JOHN L.
Incidents of travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan.
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SQUIER E. G.
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Nicaragua: its people, scenery, monuments.
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SQUIER E. G., and E. H. DAVIS.
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THRUSTON, GATES P.
The antiquities of Tennessee and the adjacent states, and the
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COZZENS, SAMUEL W.
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CRUISE OF THE REVENUE-STEAMER CORWIN IN ALASKA AND THE North West
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CUSTER, General. G. A.
My life on the plains.
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DALL, WILLIAM. H.
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DALTON, HENRY G.
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DEFOREST, JOHN W.
History of the Indians of Connecticut (1853).
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DENTON, DANIEL.
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DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN
An account of the Abipones, an equestrian people of Paraguay
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(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/accountofabipone04dobr
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/accountofabipone05dobr
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/accountofabiponex03dobr
(Volume 1) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50629
(Volume 2) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50621
(Volume 3) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50623
DODGE. J. R.
Red men of the Ohio valley, 1650-1795.
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{xxviii}
DORSEY, JAMES OWEN.
The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana.
Salem. 1893.
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https://archive.org/details/jstor-2449921/page/n1/mode/2up
DUNBAR, J. B.
The Pawnee Indians.
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EASTMAN, Mrs. MARY.
Dahcotah; or life and legends of the Sioux around Fort
Snelling.
New York: John Wiley. 1849.
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EELLS, MYRON.
Indians of Puget Sound.
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EGGLESTON, EDWARD, and LILLIE E. SEELYE.
Pocahontas.
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GATSCHET, ALBERT S.
The Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon.
Washington. 1890. 2 volumes.
(United States geographical and geological survey.
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https://archive.org/details/klamathindiansof02gatsuoft
https://archive.org/details/cihm_52744/page/n7/mode/2up
A migration legend of the Creek Indians, with a linguistic,
historic and ethnographic introduction.
Philadelphia: D. G. Brinton. 1884. volume 1.
(Volume 1) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/49031
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GIBBS, GEORGE.
Tribes of western Washington and northwestern Oregon.
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GOOKIN, DANIEL.
Historical account of the doings and sufferings of the
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Historical collections of the Indians in New England.
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GRANT, Mrs. ANNE (of Laggan).
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(Mohawks.) New York.
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GRINNELL, GEORGE BIRD.
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GWYTHER, G.
Pueblo Indians.
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HALE, HORATIO, editor.
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HARDACRE, EMMA C.
The cliff-dwellers.
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HAUGHTON, JAMES
Additional memoir of the Moheagans.
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HEALY, Capt. M. A.
Report of the cruise of the revenue marine steamer Corwin in
the Arctic Ocean in 1885.
Washington. 1887. (House of Representatives,
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HEARNE, SAMUEL.
A journey from Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769-72.
London: A. Strahan & T. Cadell. 1795.
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38404
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HECKEWELDER, Reverend JOHN.
History of the manners and customs of the Indian nations
who once inhabited Pennsylvania, etc. (1818; new edition,
with introduction by Reverend William C. Reichel.
Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, volume 12.
Philadelphia. 1876).
https://archive.org/details/histmannerscust00heckrich
Narrative of the mission of the United Brethren among
the Delaware and Mohegan Indians, 1740-1808.
Philadelphia: M'Carthy & Davis. 1820.
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HENRY, ALEXANDER
Travels and adventures in Canada and the Indian territories,
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HILLARD, G. S.
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HIND, HENRY YOULE.
Explorations in the interior of the Labrador peninsula; the
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London: Longman, Green & Company. 1863. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cihm_42676
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/explorationsinin021863hind
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cihm_42677
Narrative of the Canadian Red River exploring expedition of
1857, and of the Assinniboine and Saskatchewan expedition of 1858.
London: Longman, Green & Company. 1860. 2 volumes.
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HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS.
Nez Percé Joseph; an account of his ancestors, his lands, etc.
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HUBBARD, J. NILES.
An account of Sa·go-ye-wat·ha, or Red Jacket and his people,
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Albany: Joel Munsell's Sons. 1886.
https://archive.org/details/accountofsagoyew00hubbuoft
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HUNTER, JOHN D.
Manners and customs of several Indian tribes located west of
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Philadelphia. 1823.
https://archive.org/details/mannerscustoms00huntrich
Memoirs of a captivity among the Indians.
London: Longman. 1824.
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HURT, Dr. GARLAND.
Indians of Utah. (Simpson's Report of explorations, 1850.
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HUTCHINSON, THOMAS. J.
The Parana.
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IM THURN, EVERARD FERDINAND.
Among the Indians of Guiana.
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IRVING, JOHN TREAT.
Indian sketches taken during a United States expedition to
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JAMES, EDWIN, comp.
Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky
Mountains., 1819-20, under command of Major Long.
Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. 1823. 2 volumes, with atlas.
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JEWITT, JOHN R.
Narrative of adventures and sufferings among the Indians of
Nootka Sound.
Ithaca, New York: Andrus, Gauntlett & Company. 1851.
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JOGUES PAPERS, THE (1642-6);
translated, with a memoir, by J. G. Shea.
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JOHNSON, ELIAS, Tuscarora chief.
Legends, traditions and laws of the Iroquois or six
nations, and history of the Tuscarora Indians.
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JONES, Reverend PETER (KAHKEWAQUONABY).
History of the Ojebway Indians.
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KEATING, WILLIAM H., comp. Narrative of an expedition to the source of St. Peter's River,
Lake Winnepeek, &c., in 1823, under command of Major Long.
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KETCHUM, WILLIAM.
Authentic and comprehensive history of Buffalo, with some
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Buffalo: Rockwell, Baker & Hill. 1864. 2 volumes.
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KIDDER, FREDERIC.
The Abenaki Indians. (Collections of the Main Historical
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http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25416
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KIP, Reverend. WILLIAM INGRAHAM, compo. and translator. The early Jesuit missions in North America; from the letters
of the Fr. Jesuits, with notes.
New York: Wiley & Putnam. 1846. 2 volumes.
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KOHL, J. G.
Kitchi-gami; wanderings round Lake Superior [translated from
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LA ROCHEFOUCAULT LIANCOURT, Duc de.
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LE CLERCQ, Father CHRISTIAN.
First establishment of the faith in New France (1691); now
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New York: J. G. Shea. 1881. 2 volumes.
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LEWIS AND CLARKE.
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LORD, JOHN K.
The naturalist in Vancouver's Island and British Columbia,
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London: Richard Bentley. 1866. 2 volumes.
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LOSKIEL, GEORGE HENRY.
History of the mission of the United Brethren among the Indians
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LUMMIS, CHARLES. F.
The land of poco tiempo [New Mexico].
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McKENNA, J. A. J.
Indians of Canada.
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McKENNEY, THOMAS. L.
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MARCY, Colonel R. B.
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Historical writings relating to the early history of the west;
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MATTHEWS, WASHINGTON.
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MEGAPOLENSIS, J., Jr.
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MEMOIR OF THE PEQUOTS, etc.
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MILLER, JOAQUIN.
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MILLER. WILLIAM. J.
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Providence: S. S. Rider. 1880.
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{xxix}
MINER, LEWIS H.
The valley of Wyoming.
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MÖLLHAUSEN, BALDWIN.
Diary of a journey from the Mississippi to the coasts of the
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MORELET, ARTHUR.
Travels in Central America; translated from the French by
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MORGAN, LEWIS H.
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NEW YORK STATE.
Commissioners of Indian affairs, for the extinguishment of
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Albany: Joel Munsell. 1861. 2 volumes.
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Regents of the university. Annual reports on the condition of
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NORMAN, B. M.
Rambles in Yucatan; including a visit to the remarkable ruins
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NUTTALL, THOMAS.
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OBER, F. A.
Acoma, a picturesque pueblo.
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PALFREY, JOHN GORHAM.
Compendious history of New England. 1494-1775 (1884). volume 1.
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PIDGEON, WILLIAM.
Traditions of De-coo-dah, comprising extensive explorations,
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POWERS, STEPHEN.
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RAE, J.
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RIGGS, Reverend Dr. STEPHEN R.
Mary and I; forty years with the Sioux.
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RINK, Dr. HENRY.
The Eskimo tribes; their distribution and characteristics,
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om Gronland").
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Tales and traditions of the Eskimo, with a sketch of their
habits, religions, language, etc. (1866-71); translated from
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Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. 1875.
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RONAN, PETER.
Historical sketch of the Flathead Indian nation, 1813-1890.
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RONDTHALER, Reverend EDWARD.
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RUTTENBER. E. M.
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SCHERMERHORN, J. F.
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SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY R.
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Personal memoirs of a residence of thirty years with
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SCHWEINITZ, EDMUND DE.
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SEAVER, JAS. E.

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SHEA, J. G.
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SHELDON, WILLIAM.
Account of the Caraibs.
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SIMPSON, JAMES H.
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The shortest route to California, with some account
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SITGREAVES, Capt. L.
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SKENANDOAH.
Letters on the Iroquois; addressed to Albert Gallatin.
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SMET, Father P. J. DE.
Letters and sketches, with a narrative of a year's residence
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Oregon missions and travels over the Rocky Mountains. 1845-6.
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Western missions and missionaries.
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SMITH, Capt. JOHN.
Description of Virginia. General historie of Virginia. (Works,
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SPRAGUE, JOHN T.
The origin, progress, and conclusion of the Florida war.
New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1843.
https://archive.org/details/originprogressa03spragoog
Historical and mythological traditions of the Algonquins, with
a translation of the "Walumolum."
(New York Historical Society.)
STONE, WILLIAM L.
Life and times of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, or Red Jacket (1841).
Albany: J. Munsell. 1866.
https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessag01stongoog
Life of Joseph Brant--Thayendanegea (1838).
Albany: J. Munsell. 1865. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifeofjosephbran01ston
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STRACHEY, WILLIAM.
Historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia. (1618?).
London: Hakluyt Society. 1849.
https://archive.org/details/historietravail00majogoog
SWAN, JAMES G.
The Haidah Indians of Queen Charlotte's Islands (1874).
(Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 21.
Washington. 1876.)
https://archive.org/details/haidahindians00swanrich
https://archive.org/details/cihm_23957
The Indians of Cape Flattery, Washington Territory. (1868).
(Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, volume 16.
Washington. 1870.)
https://archive.org/details/indianscapeflatt00swanrich
https://archive.org/details/b21914084
The northwest coast;
or three years [1852-5] in Washington Territory.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1857.
https://archive.org/details/northwestcoastor00swan
SULLIVAN, Honorable JAMES.
History of the Penobscott Indians.
(Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society.,
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VETROMILE, EUGENE.
The Abnaki Indians.
(Collections of the Maine Historical Society., volume 6.
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https://archive.org/details/abnakisandtheir00vetrgoog
The Abnakis and their history.
New York: J. B. Kirker. 1866.
https://archive.org/details/abnakistheirhist00vetr
WILLIAMSON, WILLIAM. D.
Indian tribes in New England (1839)
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WILLIS, WILLIAM.
The language of the Abnaquies or eastern Indians: appendix by
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WILSON, DANIEL.
The Huron-Iroquois of Canada.
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https://archive.org/details/cihm_29131/page/n5/mode/2up
ZEISBERGER, DAVID, Moravian Missionary, Ohio. Diary [1781-1798]; translated from the German and
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Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Company. 1885. 2 volumes.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/diaryofdavid02zeisrich
ZYLYFF.
The Ponca chiefs, an Indian's attempt to appeal from the
tomahawk to the courts; with introduction by Inshtatheamba
(Bright Eyes), and dedication by Wendell Phillips.
Boston: Lockwood, Brooks & Company. 1880.
https://archive.org/details/poncachiefsanin01tibbgoog
AUSTRIA.
GENERAL.
BRYCE, JAMES.
The holy Roman empire (1864).
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(1871) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44101
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COXE, WILLIAM.
History of the house of Austria, 1218-1792 (1807).
London: H. G. Bohn. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof01coxeuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof02coxeiala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof02coxeuoft
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof03coxeuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.458810
DUNHAM, S. A.
History of the Germanic empire.
London: Longman. 1834. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermani01dunhiala/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermani02dunhiala/page/n9/mode/2up
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DYER, THOMAS HENRY.
History of modern Europe, 1453-1857.
London: John Murray, 4 volumes; George Bell & Sons. 4 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofmodern01dyer
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.40858
FREEMAN, EDWARD A.
The historical geography of Europe.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1881. 2 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/b31349638
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeog01free
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra01freeuoft
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra01free
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra02freeuoft
{xxxi}
GOULD, S. BARING.
GOULD, S. BARING-GOULD.
The story of Germany (Story of the nations).
London: T. F. Unwin.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1886.
https://archive.org/details/storyofgermany00bari/page/n11/mode/2up
HEEREN, A. H. L.
A manual of the history of the political system of Europe and
its colonies (1809); translated from the German.
London: H. G. Bohn.
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501449/page/n1/mode/2up
https://archive.org/details/manualofhistoryo00heerrich
https://archive.org/details/manual00ofhistoryoheerrich
KOCH, CHRISTOPHER WILLIAM.
The revolutions of Europe (1771);
from the French.
London: Whittaker & Company. 1839.
https://archive.org/details/revolutionseurop00koch
KOHLRAUSCH, FRIEDRICH.
History of Germany (1816); [translated by J. D. Haas].
London: Chapman & Hall. 1844.
https://archive.org/details/ahistorygermany00haasgoog
New York: Appleton. 1845.
https://archive.org/details/ahistorygermany00haasgoog
LATHAM, ROBERT. G.
Ethnology of Europe.
London: J. Van Voorst. 1852.
https://archive.org/details/ethnologyofeurop00lathuoft/page/n5/mode/2up
The nationalities of Europe. volume 2.
London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1863. 2 volumes.
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31028
LAVISSE, ERNEST.
General view of the political history of Europe;
translated by Charles Gross.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1891.
https://archive.org/details/generalviewofpol00laviiala
https://archive.org/details/generalviewofpol00lavi
https://archive.org/details/generalviewpoli01grosgoog
LEGER, LOUIS.
History of Austro-Hungary (1666; 2d edition., 1878-88);
translated by Mrs. Birkbeck Hill.
London: Rivingtons.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
https://archive.org/details/historyofaustroh00lege
https://archive.org/details/ahistoryaustroh00hillgoog
LEWIS, CHARLTON T.
History of Germany.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1874.
https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00lewi
https://archive.org/details/ahistorygermany00unkngoog
LODGE, RICHARD.
History of modern Europe, 1453-1878.
London: J. Murray. 1885.
New York: Harper Brothers.
https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00lodguoft
https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne017244mbp
https://archive.org/details/cu31924027987092
MALLESON, G. B.
Lost opportunities of the house of Austria
(Royal Historical Society Papers, volume 12, page 225).
MENZEL, WOLFGANG.
History of Germany (1824-5);
translated from 4th German edition by Mrs. G. Horrocks.
London: H. G. Bohn. 1848. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany01menzuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany02menzuoft
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany03menzuoft
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historygermanyf00menzgoog
MICHELET, JULES.
A summary of modern history (1827);
translated and continued by M. C. M. Simpson.
London: Macmillan & Co. 1875.
https://archive.org/details/asummarymodernh00michgoog
https://archive.org/details/summaryofmodernh00michuoft
RUSSELL, WILLIAM.
History of modern Europe (1779).
London: George Routledge & Sons. 4 volumes.
Whittaker & Company. 4 volume
New York: Harper Brothers. 3 volumes.
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(Epitomized) https://archive.org/details/russellshistory00russgoog/page/n6/mode/2up
SIME, JAMES.
History of Germany.
London: Macmillan & Company. 1874.
New York: Henry Holt & Co. 1874.
https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00simerich
https://archive.org/details/historygermany00simegoog
https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany0000unse_n7z0/page/n7/mode/2up
https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00sime
https://archive.org/details/historyofgermany00simeuoft
SMYTH, WILLIAM.
Lectures on modern history (1840).
London: H. G. Bohn. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.3073
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.2173
TURNER, SAMUEL EPES.
Sketch of the Germanic constitution from early times to the
dissolution of the empire.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1888.
https://archive.org/details/asketchgermanic01turngoog
VOLTAIRE, F. M. AROUET DE.
Annals of the empire, from the time of Charlemagne
(Works, translated by Smollett and others, 1761, volumes 20-22).
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalsoftheempir01voltuoft
MEDIÆVAL.
BUSK, Mrs. WILLIAM.
Mediæval popes, emperors, kings and crusaders.
London: Hookham & Sons. 1854-6. 4 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem01buskuoft
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesemp01buskgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem02buskuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/MediaevalPopesEmperorsKingsCrusadersV2
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesemp00buskgoog
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem03buskuoft
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/medivalpopesem04buskuoft
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/MediaevalPopesEmperorsKingsCrusadersV4
COMYN, Sir ROBERT.
History of the western empire, from Charlemagne to Charles V.
[800-1520],
London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1841. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historywesterne01unkngoog
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historywesterne02unkngoog/page/n7/mode/2up
DURUY, VICTOR.
The history of the middle ages (1839);
translated by E. H. and M. D. Whitney, with notes and
revisions by G. B. Adams.
New York: Henry Holt & Company. 1891.
https://archive.org/details/historyofmiddlea00dur
https://archive.org/details/historyofmiddlea00duru
https://archive.org/details/historyofmiddlea00duruuoft
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.169467
HALLAM, HENRY.
View of the state of Europe during the middle ages.
London: J. Murray. 3 volumes.
New York: W. J. Widdleton. 3 volumes.
(Volume 3) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33540
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofe01hall
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofeur01hall
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofeur02hall
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/viewofstateofeur03hall
https://archive.org/details/cu31924027794654/page/n3/mode/2up
HENDERSON, ERNEST F.,
Select historical documents of the middle ages.
London: George Bell & Sons. 1892.
New York: Macmillan & Company.
https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala
https://archive.org/details/ErnestF.HendersonSelectHistoricalDocumentsOfTheMiddleAges
https://archive.org/details/cu31924014186161
https://archive.org/details/selectdocuments00hend
https://archive.org/details/cu31924014186526
STUBBS, WILLIAM.
Seventeen lectures on the study of medieval and modern history.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1886.
New York: MacMillan & Company. 1887.
https://archive.org/details/seventeenlecture00stub
https://archive.org/details/cu31924027811011
The Constitutional History of England in Its Origin and Development
https://archive.org/details/constitutionalh04stubgoog
The Early Plantagenets
https://archive.org/details/earlyplantagenet01stub
16TH-17TH CENTURIES.--REFORMATION--THIRTY YEARS WAR.
CUST, Sir EDWARD,
Lives of the warriors of the thirty years' war.
London: John Murray. 1865. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/livesofwarriorspt1custuoft/page/n3/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/livesofwarriorspt2custuoft
GARDINER, SAMUEL R.
The thirty years' war, 1618-1648 (Epochs of history).
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1874.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40082
https://archive.org/details/gardinersamuel00rawsrich
https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearswar00gardgoog
https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearswar1600gard
https://archive.org/details/thirtyyearswar1600
GINDELY, ANTON.
History of the thirty years' war (1869-80):
translated by A. Ten Brook.
London: Richard Bentley & Son.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1884. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historythirtyye01broogoog
MALDEN, HENRY E.
Vienna, 1683.
London: Kegan Paul & Company. 1883.
http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56023
MARTIN, HENRI.
History of France: age of Louis XIV.(1860);
translated by Mrs. Booth.
Boston: Walker, Wise & Company. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nW0PAAAAYAAJ
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_T30PAAAAYAAJ
MAXWELL, Sir WILLIAM STIRLING.
Don John of Austria, 1547-78.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1883. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/donjohnofaustria01stiriala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/donjohnofaustria02stiruoft
MITCHELL, Lieut.-Colonel J.
Life of Wallenstein.
London: Jas. Fraser. 1837.
https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.94161
PRAET, JULES VAN.
Essays on the political history of the 15th, 16th and 17th
centuries; [translated] edited by Sir Edmund Head.
London: Richard Bentley. 1868.
https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.77834
RANKE, LEOPOLD VON.
Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. of Austria (1832);
translated by Lady Duff Gordon.
London: Longman.
(1853) https://archive.org/details/FerdinandIAndMaximilianIIOfAustria/page/n5/mode/2up
History of the Latin and Teutonic nations, 1494-1514 (1824);
translated from the German by Philip A. Ashworth.
London: George Bell & Sons. 1887.
(1887) https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinte01rank
(1909) https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinte00rankiala
(1915) https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinte00rankrich
History of the reformation in Germany (1839-43);
translated by Sarah Austin.
London: Longman. 1845-7. 3 volumes.
(1905) https://archive.org/details/historyreformat02rankgoog/page/n6/mode/2up
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM.
History of the reign of the emperor Charles V. (1769); with
life of the emperor after his abdication, by W. H. Prescott
(1857).
London: George Routledge & Sons. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1)https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp42robegoog
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofreign01robe
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/reignofemperorch02robe
https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp27robegoog/page/n10/mode/2up
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof1864robe
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof02robe
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof03robe
New York: Hopkins & Seymore
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof01robguat/page/n11/mode/2up
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof03roguat/page/n11/mode/2up
https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp32robegoog/page/n6/mode/2up
(Complete) https://archive.org/details/historyofreignof00roberich
TRENCH, RICHARD C.
Gustavus Adolphus in Germany.
London: Macmillan & Company, 2d edition. 1872.
(Volume 1)https://archive.org/details/historyreignemp27robegoog/page/n10/mode/2up
18TH CENTURY.
BRACKENBURY. Colonel. C. B.
Frederick the great.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1884.
https://archive.org/details/frederickgreat00bracrich
BROGLIE, Duc de.
Frederick the great and Maria Theresa (1882);
translated by Mrs. Hoey and J. Lillie.
London: Low, Marston & Company. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma01brogiala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatma02brogiala
CARLYLE, THOMAS.
History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the
great (1858).
London: Chapman & Hall.
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric37carlgoog
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric27carlgoog
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric47carlgoog
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric57carlgoog
New York: Harper & Brothers.
(Books 1-19) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2102
(Books 1-21) http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25808
(Books 1-5) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri01carl
(Books 8-10) https://archive.org/details/friedrichiiofpru03carl
(Books 15-17) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric47carlgoog
New York: Dana Estes and Charles E. Lauriat
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri01carl/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri02carl
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri03carl
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri04carl
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri05carl
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyoffriedri06carl
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric54carlgoog/page/n12/mode/2up
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric51carlgoog/page/n8/mode/2up
Leipzig: Bernard Tauchnitz
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historyfriedric10carlgoog
CUST, Sir Edward.
Annals of the wars of the eighteenth century.
London: John Murray. 1862. 5 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight05custgoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight00custgoog/page/n4/mode/2up
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight03custgoog
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/annalswarseight04custgoog
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.106238/page/n1/mode/2up
DOVER, Lord.
Life of Frederick II., King of Prussia.
London: Longman. 1831.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/lifeoffredericse01doveuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/lifefredericsec08dovegoog/page/n8/mode/2up
FREDERICK II. (called the great).
History of my own times [1740-1745].
(Posthumous works; translated by Thomas Holcroft. Volume 1.
London. 1789. 13 volumes.)
(Part 1) https://archive.org/details/vol2historyofmyo00fred
(Part 2) https://archive.org/details/vol3historyofmyo00fred
See CARLYLE, THOMAS for mant other volumes.
GERARD, JAMES W.
The peace of Utrecht, 1713-14.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1885.
https://archive.org/details/cu31924027872021
https://archive.org/details/peaceutrechtahi00geragoog
KUGLER, FRANCIS.
Pictorial history of Germany during the reign of Frederick the
great (1842); [translated from the German.].
London: H. G. Bohn.
https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor00menzgoog
LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE
History of England in the 18th century.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1878-90. 8 volumes.
New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1878-90. 8 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/historyofengland06leck/page/n7/mode/2up
LONGMAN, F. W.
Frederick the great and the seven years' war.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1881.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41356
https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatse01long
MACAULAY, Lord.
Essays: Frederick the great (1842).
London: Longmans, Green & Company.
Boston: Estes & Lauriat. 3 volumes.
New York: Maynard, Merrill, &: Co.
https://archive.org/details/essayonfredericg00maca/page/n5/mode/2up
MALLESON, Colonel. G. B.
Loudon [Austrian fieldmarshal, 1743-1790].
London: Chapman & Hall. 1884.
MALLET, CHARLES EDWARD.
The French revolution.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1893.
(1897) https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00malluoft
(1893) https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00mallrich
(1893) https://archive.org/details/cu31924031498128/page/n9/mode/2up
MIGNET, FRANÇOIS A. M.
History of the French revolution, 1789-1814 (1824);
translated from the French.
London: George Bell & Sons.
https://archive.org/details/historyoffrenchr00migniala
https://archive.org/details/historyfrenchre03conggoog
RAUMER, FREDERICK VON.
Contributions to modern history: Frederick II. and his times.
London: Charles Knight & Company. 1837.
https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.91064
SCHLOSSER, F. C.
History of the eighteenth century, etc.;
translated by D. Davison.
London: Chapman & Hall. 1843-52. 8 volumes.
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen03schlgoog
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen08schlgoog
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen01schlgoog/page/n6/mode/2up
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyeighteen02schlgoog/page/n5/mode/2up
STANHOPE, Earl (Lord Mahon).
History of England 1713-1783 (1836-53).
London: John Murray. 7 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01stan
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland02stan
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland03stan/page/n5/mode/2up
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland04stan
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland05stan/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historyofengland07stan/page/n5/mode/2up
Leipzig: Bernhard Tauchnitz 1853
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4CFTAAAAcAAJ
STEPHENS, H. MORSE.
History of the French revolution. Volumes 1-2.
London: Rivingtons. 1880.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1886-91.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrenchr01stepiala
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024309480
THIERS, LOUIS ADOLPHE.
History of the French revolution (1827);
translated by F. Shoberl (1854).
New York: D. Appleton & Co. 4 volumes.
London: Richard Bentley & Son. 5 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench01thieuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench02thieuoft
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/v3a4historyoffren03thieuoft
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench04thieuoft
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyoffrench05thieuoft
{xxxi}
19TH CENTURY: EARLY AND GENERAL.
ADAMS, Major CHARLES.
Great campaigns in Europe from 1796 to 1870;
edited by C. C. King.
Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons. 1877.
https://archive.org/details/greatcampaignssu00adam
ALISON, Sir ARCHIBALD.
History of Europe, 1789-1815 (1842). 10 volumes.
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyeuropefr04alisgoog/page/n8/mode/2up
https://archive.org/details/historyeuropefr37alisgoog
History of Europe, 1815-1852 (1857). 6 volumes.
Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons.
New York: Harper & Brothers.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope701alisuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef02alis
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope703alisuoft
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropefc04alis
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope705alisuoft
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope706alisuoft
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope707alisuoft
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef08alisuoft
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef09alisuoft
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef09alis
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef11alisiala
(Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef12alisuoft
(Volume 13) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef13alisuoft
(Volume 14) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef14alisuoft
(Volume 15) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef15alisuoft
(Volume 16) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef16alisuoft
(Volume 17) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef17alisuoft
(Volume 20) https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropef00alisuoft
AUSTRIA.
(North British Review, 44: 27. 1866.)
AUSTRIAN NATIONALITIES AND AUSTRIAN POLICY:
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DUFF, MOUNTSTUART E. GRANT-.
Studies in European politics.
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https://archive.org/details/studiesineurope01duffgoog
https://archive.org/details/studiesineurope00duffgoog
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FYFFE, C. A.
History of modern Europe. [1792-1878].
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https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00fyffuoft
JOURNAL OF A NOBLEMAN:
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History of the house of Austria [1792-1848]. And Genesis or the late Austrian revolution: by an officer of
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https://archive.org/details/historyofhouseof00kell
KOHL, J. G.
Austria.
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KRAUSE, GUSTAV.
The growth of German unity.
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History of Napoleon I. [translated from the French.].
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapole02lanf
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024344834
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapoleo03lanfuoft
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/cu31924024344842
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/historyofnapoleo04lanfuoft
MALLESON, Colonel George Bruce
Life of Prince Metternich (Statesmen series).
London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1888.
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https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181131/page/n3/mode/2up
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https://archive.org/details/lifeofprincemett00malluoft
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METTERNICH, Prince.
Memoirs [1773-1835]: translated by Mrs. Alexander Napier.
London: Bentley & Son. 1880.
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https://archive.org/details/memoirsofprincem02mettuoft/page/n5/mode/2up
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MICHIELS, ALFRED, compiler.
Secret history of the Austrian government.
London: Chapman & Hall. 1859.
https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryau00michgoog
MÜLLER, W.
Political history of recent times, 1816-1875:
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New York: Harper & Brothers. 1882.
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https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00mluoft
https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00ml
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https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor00petegoog
ROSE, J. H.
A century of continental history, 1780-1880.
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STEPHENS, H. MORSE.
Europe, 1789-1815.
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THIERS, ADOLPH.
History of the consulate and the empire of France under
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Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Company. 5 volumes.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyconsulate02thieiala
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire03thieiala
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire04thieiala
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/historyofconsula05thieiala
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire06thieiala
(Volume 7) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire07thieiala
(Volume 8) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire08thieiala
(Volume 9) https://archive.org/details/historyofconsula09thieiala
(Volume 10) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire10thieiala
(Volume 11) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire11thieiala
(Volume 12) https://archive.org/details/consulateempire12thieiala
TURNBULL, PETER EVAN
Austria, volume 2.
London: J. Murray. 1840. 2 volumes.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/austria02turngoog/page/n8/mode/2up
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/austria03turngoog/page/n6/mode/2up
VEHSE, E.
Memoirs of the court, aristocracy and diplomacy of Austria;
translated by Franz Demmler.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1856. 2 volumes.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirsofcourtar02vehs
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WEIR, ARCHIBALD.
The historical basis of modern Europe, 1760-1815.
London: Swan Sonnenschein & Company. 1886.
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WHITMAN, SIDNEY.
The realm of the Habsburgs.
London: William Heinemann. 1893.
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AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, AND THE LESSER PROVINCES.
AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.
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AUSTRIA IN 1848-9.
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BONER, CHARLES.
Transylvania.
London: Longmans. 1865.
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BRACE, CHARLES LORING.
Hungary in 1851.
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https://archive.org/details/hungaryinwithan00bracgoog
FELBERMANN, LOUIS.
Hungary and its people.
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FITZMAURICE, EDMOND.
Home rule in Austria.
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FORSTER, FLORENCE A.
Francis Deak, Hungarian statesman: a memoir, with a preface by
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London: Macmillan & Company. 1880.
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https://archive.org/details/francisdekhunga00forgoog
GERARD, E.
The land beyond the forest [Transylvania].
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GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE
History of Hungary and the Magyars.
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GÖRGEI, ARTHUR.
My life and acts in Hungary, 1848-9 (1851); translated.
London: D. Bogue.
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https://archive.org/details/mylifeactsinhung00grrich
HOFER, ANDREW,
Memoirs of the life of: containing an account of the
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London: John Murray. 1820.
https://archive.org/details/memoirslifeandr00unkngoog
KAY, DAVID.
Home rule in Austria-Hungary.
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https://archive.org/details/austriahungary00kayd
KLAPKA, General GEORGE.
Memoirs of the war of independence in Hungary:
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London: C. Gilpin. 1850. 2 volumes.
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MAURICE, C. EDMUND.
Revolutionary movement of 1848-9 in Italy, Austria-Hungary,
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London: George Bell & Sons. 1887.
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PAGET, JOHN.
Travels in Hungary and Transylvania (1839).
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(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/agw0321.0001.001.umich.edu/page/II/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/hungarytransylva02pageuoft/page/n7/mode/2up
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/agw0321.0002.001.umich.edu/page/n9/mode/2up
PARDOE, Miss JULIA.
The city of the Magyar, or Hungary and her institutions in 1839-40.
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PATON, A. A.
Highlands and islands of the Adriatic.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dzbNcsnbcOYC
PATTERSON, ARTHUR J.
The Magyars: their country and institutions.
London: Smith, Elder & Company. 1869. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/magyarstheircou06johngoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/magyarstheircou01pattgoog/page/n6/mode/2up
PLANTA, JOSEPH.
History of the Helvetic confederacy.
London. 1800. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/historyofhelveti01planuoft
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/historyhelvetic00plangoog
PRICE, BONAMY.
Austria and Hungary.
(Fraser's Magazine, 65: 384. 1862.)
STILES, WILLIAM. H.
Austria in 1848-49.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1852-3. 2 volumes.
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(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/cu31924088020148
SZABAD, EMERIC.
Hungary, past and present.
Edinburgh: A. & C. Black. 1854.
https://archive.org/details/hungarypastandp00szabgoog/page/n4/mode/2up
VÁMBÉRY, ARMINIUS, and LOUIS HEILPRIN.
The story of Hungary (Story of the nations).
New York: G. P. Putnam‘s Sons. 1886.
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https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50038
https://archive.org/details/storyhungary00vmgoog
AUSTRIA AND ITALY.
ARRIVABENE, Count CHARLES.
Italy under Victor Emmanuel.
London: Hurst & Blackett. 1862. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/italyundervicto02arrigoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/italyundervicto01arrigoog
AUSTRIA, FRANCE AND ITALY.
(Edinburgh Review., 109: 286. 1859.)
AUSTRIANS AND ITALY, The.
(Eclectic Magazine, 47: 538. 1859.)
GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE.
Autobiography: translated by A. Werner,
with a supplement by Jessie White Mario.
London: Walter Smith & Innes. 1889. 3 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/autobiography01gariuoft
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/autobiographygi00garigoog
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/autobiographygi02garigoog
ITALY AND THE WAR OF 1866.
(Westminster Review., 87: 275. 1867.)
MAZADE, CHARLES DE.
Life of Count Cavour.
New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1877.
https://archive.org/details/lifeofcountcavou00mazarich
O'CLERY, PATRICK KEYES (The Chevalier O'Clery).
The history of the Italian revolution: 1st period, 1796-1849.
London: R. Washbourne. 1875.
https://archive.org/details/historyitalianr00oclgoog/page/n8/mode/2up
The making of Italy.
London: Kegan, Paul, Trench &: Company. 1892.
https://archive.org/details/makingofitaly18500oclerich
https://archive.org/details/makingitaly00oclgoog
https://archive.org/details/makingofitaly0000ocle/page/n5/mode/2up
https://archive.org/details/makingitaly01oclgoog
PROBYN, JOHN W.
Italy, 1815-1890.
London: Cassell & Company. 1891.
https://archive.org/details/italyfromfallofn00probuoft
https://archive.org/details/italyfromfallna00probgoog
https://archive.org/details/italyfromfallna01probgoog/italyfromfallna01probgoog
STUART, R.
The Austro-Italian alliance.
(Contemporary Review., 40: 921. 1881.)
THAYER, WILLIAM ROSCOE.
The dawn of Italian Independence, 1814-1849.
Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 1893. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/dawnofitalianind01thayiala
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/dawnofitalianind02thayuoft
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/cu31924082152400
WRIGHTSON, RICHARD HEBER
A history of modern Italy [1800-50].
London: Richard Bentley. 1855.
https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.14113
https://archive.org/details/ahistorymoderni00wriggoog
AUSTRIA AND GERMANY.
CHESNEY, C. C.
The campaign [of 1866] in western Germany.
(Blackwood's Magazine, 101: 68. 1867.)
DICEY, EDWARD.
The battlefields of 1866.
London: Tinsley Brothers. 1866.
https://archive.org/details/battlefields00dicegoog
The campaign [of 1866] in Germany.
(Macmillan's Magazine, 14: 386. 1866.)
DICEY, EDWARD T.
The campaign [of 1866] in Italy.
(Macmillan's Magazine, 14: 241. 1866.)
GERMANIC CONFEDERATION and the Austrian empire, The.
(Quarterly Review, 84: 425. 1849.)
HOZIER, H. M.
The seven weeks' war [1866].
London: Macmillan & Company. 1867. 2 volumes.
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.238477
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45879
{xxxii}
LOWE, CHARLES.
Prince Bismarck; an historical biography.
London: Cassell & Company. 1885. 2 volumes.
https://archive.org/details/princebismarkhis00lowe
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/princebismarckhi01loweiala
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/princebismarcka01lowegoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/princebismarcka02lowegoog
MALET, Sir ALEXANDER.
The overthrow of the Germanic confederation. 1866.
London: Longmans, Green & Company. 1870.
https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.77288/page/iii/mode/2up
MALLESON, Colonel. G. B.
Battle-fields of Germany.
London: W. H. Allen & Company. 1884.
https://archive.org/details/battlefieldsofge00malluoft
The refounding of the German empire. 1848-71.
London: Seeley & Company. 1893.
https://archive.org/details/refoundingofgerm00mall
PRUSSIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1806.
(Edinburgh Review, 125: 187. 1867.)
RECONSTRUCTION OF GERMANY, The.
(North British Review, 51: 133. 1869.)
SIMON, EDOUARD.
The emperor William and his reign:
from the French.
London: Remington & Company. 1886. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/emperorwilliama00simogoog
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/emperorwilliama01simogoog
SYBEL, HEINRICH VON.
The founding of the German empire by William I.;
based chiefly upon Prussian state documents:
translated by M. L. Perrin and G. Bradford, Jr.
New York: T. Y. Crowell & Company. 1890-1. 5 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman01sybe
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman02sybe
(Volume 3) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman03sybe
(Volume 4) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman04sybe
(Volume 5) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman05sybe
(Volume 6) https://archive.org/details/foundingofgerman06sybe
AUSTRIA AND THE SOUTHEASTERN STATES.
AUSTRIA, GERMANY AND THE EASTERN QUESTION.
(Fraser's Magazine, 96: 407. 1877.)
AUSTRIA'S POLICY IN THE EAST.
(Macmillan's Magazine, 53: 17. 1885.)
BOURCHIER, John David
The sentinel of the Balkans.
(Fortnightly Review., 52: 806. 1889.)
CAILLARD, VINCENT.
The Bulgarian imbroglio.
(Fortnightly Review, 44: 740. 1885.)
FREEMAN; EDWARD A.
The house of Habsburg in south-eastern Europe.
(Fortnightly Review., 51: 839. 1889.)
The position of the Austrian power in south-eastern Europe.
(Contemporary Review., 41: 727. 1882.)
THE RECONSTRUCTED EMPIRE: ITS REFORMS AND POLICY.
AUSTRIA AND HER REFORMS.
(Westminster Review. 75: 503. 1801.)
AUSTRIA SINCE SADOWA.
(Quarterly Review., 131: 90. 1871.)
AUSTRIA: qu'est que c'est l'Austrie?
(Edinburgh Review, 40: 298. 1824.)
AUSTRIAN CONSTITUTIONALISM.
(Westminster Review, 79: 333. 1863.)
BEUST, FRIEDRICH F. Count VON.
Memoirs [1830-1885].
London: Remington & Company. 2 volumes.
(Volume 1) https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.92139
(Volume 2) https://archive.org/details/memoirsfriedric00beusgoog
BOURCHIER, J. D.
The heritage of the Hapsburgs.
(Fortnightly Review, 51: 377. 1889.)
DILKE, Sir CHARLES W.
Position of European politics, 1887.
London: Chapman & Hall. 1887..
https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.91722
DUALISM IN AUSTRIA.
(Westminster Review, 88: 431. 1867.)
FOREIGN POLICY AND INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE AUSTRIAN
EMPIRE.
(Foreign Quarterly Review, 18: 257. 1837.)
NATIONAL LIFE AND THOUGHT.
London: T. F. Unwin. 1891.
---------- End: History for Ready Reference ----------