History for ready reference, Volume 1, A-Elba

by J. N. Larned

ALVA IN THE NETHERLANDS.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568 to 1573-1574.
AMADEO, King of Spain, A. D. 1871-1873.
AMAHUACA, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.
AMALASONTHA, Queen of the Ostrogoths.
See ROME: A. D. 535-553.
AMALEKITES, The.
"The Amalekites were usually regarded as a branch of the
Edomites or 'Red-skins'. Amalek, like Kenaz, the father of the
Kenizzites or 'Hunters,' was the grandson of Esau (Gen. 36:
12, 16). He thus belonged to the group of nations,--Edomites,
Ammonites, and Moabites,--who stood in a relation of close
kinship to Israel. But they had preceded the Israelites in
dispossessing the older inhabitants of the land, and
establishing themselves in their place. The Edomites had
partly destroyed, partly amalgamated the Horites of Mount Seir
(Deuteronomy 2: 12); the Moabites had done the same to the Emim,
'a people great and many, and tall as the Anakim' (Deuteronomy
2: 10), while the Ammonites had extirpated and succeeded to
the Rephaim or 'Giants,' who in that part of the country were
termed Zamzummim (Deuteronomy 2: 20; Gen. 14: 5). Edom however
stood in a closer relation to Israel than its two more
northerly neighbours. ... Separate from the Edomites or
Amalekites were the Kenites or wandering 'smiths.' They formed
an important Guild in an age when the art of metallurgy was
confined to a few. In the time of Saul we hear of them as
camping among the Amalekites (1. Samuel 15: 6.) ... The
Kenites ... did not constitute a race, or even a tribe. They
were, at most, a caste. But they had originally come, like the
Israelites or the Edomites, from those barren regions of
Northern Arabia which were peopled by the Menti of the
Egyptian inscriptions. Racially, therefore, we may regard them
as allied to the descendants of Abraham. While the Kenites and
Amalekites were thus Semitic in their origin, the Hivites or
'Villagers' are specially associated with Amorites."
A. H. Sayce, Races of the Old Testament, chapter 6.
ALSO IN
H. Ewald, History of Israel, book 1, section 4.
See, also, ARABIA.
AMALFI.
"It was the singular fate of this city to have filled up the
interval between two periods of civilization, in neither of
which she was destined to be distinguished. Scarcely known
before the end of the sixth century, Amalfi ran a brilliant
career, as a free and trading republic [see ROME: A. D.
554-800], which was checked by the arms of a conqueror in the
middle of the twelfth. ... There must be, I suspect, some
exaggeration about the commerce and opulence of Amalfi, in the
only age when she possessed any at all."
H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 9, part 1, with note.
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"Amalfi and Atrani lie close together in two ... ravines, the
mountains almost arching over them, and the sea washing their
very house-walls. ... It is not easy to imagine the time when
Amalfi and Atrani were one town, with docks and arsenals and
harbourage for their associated fleets, and when these little
communities were second in importance to no naval power of
Christian Europe. The Byzantine Empire lost its hold on Italy
during the eighth century; and after this time the history of
Calabria is mainly concerned with the republics of Naples and
Amalfi, their conflict with the Lombard dukes of Benevento,
their opposition to the Saracens, and their final subjugation
by the Norman conquerors of Sicily. Between the year 839 A.
D., when Amalfi freed itself from the control of Naples and
the yoke of Benevento, and the year 1131, when Roger of
Hauteville incorporated the republic in his kingdom of the Two
Sicilies, this city was the foremost naval and commercial port
of Italy. The burghers of Amalfi elected their own doge;
founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the knightly
order of S. John; gave their name to the richest quarter in
Palermo; and owned trading establishments or factories in all
the chief cities of the Levant. Their gold coinage of 'tari'
formed the standard of currency before the Florentines had
stamped the lily and S. John upon the Tuscan florin. Their
shipping regulations supplied Europe with a code of maritime
laws. Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark ages,
prized and conned a famous copy of the Pandects of Justinian,
and their seamen deserved the fame of having first used, if
they did not actually invent, the compass. ... The republic
had grown and flourished on the decay of the Greek Empire.
When the hard-handed race of Hauteville absorbed the heritage
of Greeks and Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy [see
ITALY (Southern): A. D. 1000-1090], these adventurers
succeeded in annexing Amalfi. But it was not their interest to
extinguish the state. On the contrary, they relied for
assistance upon the navies and the armies of the little
commonwealth. New powers had meanwhile arisen in the North of
Italy, who were jealous of rivalry upon the open seas; and
when the Neapolitans resisted King Roger in 1135, they called
Pisa to their aid, and sent her fleet to destroy Amalfi. The
ships of Amalfi were on guard with Roger's navy in the Bay of
Naples. The armed citizens were, under Roger's orders, at
Aversa. Meanwhile the home of the republic lay defenceless on
its mountain-girdled seaboard. The Pisans sailed into the
harbour, sacked the city and carried off the famous Pandects
of Justinian as a trophy. Two years later they returned, to
complete the work of devastation. Amalfi never recovered from
the injuries and the humiliation of these two attacks. It was
ever thus that the Italians, like the children of the dragon's
teeth which Cadmus sowed, consumed each other."
J. A. Symonds, Sketches and Studies in Italy,
pages 2-4.
AMALINGS, OR AMALS.
The royal race of the ancient Ostragoths, as the Balthi or
Balthings were of the Visigoths, both claiming a descent from
the gods.
AMAZIGH, The.
See LIBYANS.
AMAZONS.
"The Amazons, daughters of Arês and Harmonia, are both early
creations, and frequent reproductions, of the ancient epic.
... A nation of courageous, hardy and indefatigable women,
dwelling apart from men, permitting only a short temporary
intercourse for the purpose of renovating their numbers, and
burning out their right breast with a view of enabling
themselves to draw the bow freely,--this was at once a general
type stimulating to the fancy of the poet, and a theme
eminently popular with his hearers. Nor was it at all
repugnant to the faith of the latter--who had no recorded
facts to guide them, and no other standard of credibility as
to the past except such poetical narratives themselves--to
conceive communities of Amazons as having actually existed in
anterior time. Accordingly we find these warlike females
constantly reappearing in the ancient poems, and universally
accepted as past realities. In the Iliad, when Priam wishes to
illustrate emphatically the most numerous host in which he
ever found himself included, he tells us that it was assembled
in Phrygia, on the banks of the Sangarius, for the purpose of
resisting the formidable Amazons. When Bellerophon is to be
employed on a deadly and perilous undertaking, by those who
indirectly wish to procure his death, he is despatched against
the Amazons. ... The Argonautic heroes find the Amazons on the
river Thermôdon in their expedition along the southern coast
of the Euxine. To the same spot Hêrakles goes to attack them,
in the performance of the ninth labour imposed upon him by
Eurystheus, for the purpose of procuring the girdle of the
Amazonian queen, Hippolyte; and we are told that they had not
yet recovered from the losses sustained in this severe
aggression when Theseus also assaulted and defeated them,
carrying off their queen Antiopê. This injury they avenged by
invading Attica ... and penetrated even into Athens itself:
where the final battle, hard-fought and at one time doubtful,
by which Thêseus crushed them, was fought--in the very heart
of the city. Attic antiquaries confidently pointed out the
exact position of the two contending armies. ... No portion of
the ante-historical epic appears to have been more deeply
worked into the national mind of Greece than this invasion and
defeat of the Amazons. ... Their proper territory was asserted
to be the town and plain of Themiskyra, near the Grecian
colony of Amisus, on the river Thermôdon [northern Asia
Minor], a region called after their name by Roman historians
and geographers. ... Some authors placed them in Libya or
Ethiopia."
G. Grote, History of Greece, part 1, chapter 11.
AMAZONS RIVER, Discovery and Naming of the.
The mouth of the great river of South America was discovered
in 1500 by Pinzon, or Pinçon (see AMERICA: A. D. 1499-1500),
who called it 'Santa Maria de la Mar Dulce' (Saint Mary of the
Fresh-Water Sea). "This was the first name given to the river,
except that older and better one of the Indians, 'Parana,' the
Sea; afterwards it was Marañon and Rio das Amazonas, from the
female warriors that were supposed to live near its banks. ...
After Pinçon's time, there were others who saw the fresh-water
sea, but no one was hardy enough to venture into it. The honor
of its real discovery was reserved for Francisco de Orellana;
and he explored it, not from the east, but from the west, in
one of the most daring voyages that was ever recorded. It was
accident rather than design that led him to it. After ...
Pizarro had conquered Peru, he sent his brother Gonzalo, with
340 Spanish soldiers, and 4,000 Indians, to explore the great
forest east of Quito, 'where there were cinnamon trees.' The
expedition started late in 1539, and it was two years before
the starved and ragged survivors returned to Quito. In the
course of their wanderings they had struck the river Coco;
building here a brigantine, they followed down the current, a
part of them in the vessel, a part on shore.
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After a while they met some Indians, who told them of a rich
country ten days' journey beyond--a country of gold, and with
plenty of provisions. Gonzalo placed Orellana in command of
the brigantine, and ordered him, with 50 soldiers, to go on to
this gold-land, and return with a load of provisions. Orellana
arrived at the mouth of the Coco in three days, but found no
provisions; 'and he considered that if he should return with
this news to Pizarro, he would not reach him in a year, on
account of the strong current, and that if he remained where
he was, he would be of no use to the one or to the other. Not
knowing how long Gonzalo Pizarro would take to reach the
place, without consulting anyone he set sail and prosecuted
his voyage onward, intending to ignore Gonzalo, to reach
Spain, and obtain that government for himself.' Down the Napo
and the Amazons, for seven months, these Spaniards floated to
the Atlantic. At times they suffered terribly from hunger:
'There was nothing to eat but the skins which formed their
girdles, and the leather of their shoes, boiled with a few
herbs.' When they did get food they were often obliged to
fight hard for it; and again they were attacked by thousands
of naked Indians, who came in canoes against the Spanish
vessel. At some Indian villages, however, they were kindly
received and well fed, so they could rest while building a new
and stronger vessel. ... On the 26th of August, 1541, Orellana
and his men sailed out to the blue water 'without either
pilot, compass, or anything useful for navigation; nor did
they know what direction they should take.' Following the
coast, they passed inside of the island of Trinidad, and so at
length reached Cubagua in September. From the king of Spain
Orellana received a grant of the land he had discovered; but
he died while returning to it, and his company was dispersed.
It was not a very reliable account of the river that was given
by Orellana and his chronicler, Padre Carbajal. So Herrera
tells their story of the warrior females, and very properly
adds: 'Every reader may believe as much as he likes.'"
H. H. Smith, Brazil, the Amazons, and the Coast, chapter 1.
In chapter 18 of this same work "The Amazon Myth" is discussed at
length, with the reports and opinions of numerous travellers,
both early and recent, concerning it.--Mr. Southey had so much
respect for the memory of Orellana that he made an effort to
restore that bold but unprincipled discoverer's name to the
great river. "He discarded Maranon, as having too much
resemblance to Maranham, and Amazon, as being founded upon
fiction and at the same time inconvenient. Accordingly, in his
map, and in all his references to the great river he
denominates it Orellana. This decision of the poet-laureate of
Great Britain has not proved authoritative in Brazil. O
Amazonas is the universal appellation of the great river among
those who float upon its waters and who live upon its banks.
... Pará, the aboriginal name of this river, was more
appropriate than any other. It signifies 'the father of
waters.' ... The origin of the name and mystery concerning the
female warriors, I think, has been solved within the last few
years by the intrepid Mr. Wallace. ... Mr. Wallace, I think,
shows conclusively that Friar Gaspar [Carbajal] and his
companions saw Indian male warriors who were attired in
habiliments such as Europeans would attribute to women. ... I
am strongly of the opinion that the story of the Amazons has
arisen from these feminine-looking warriors encountered by the
early voyagers."
J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the
Brazilians, chapter 27.
ALSO IN
A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro,
chapter 17.
R. Southey, History of Brazil, chapter 4 (volume 1).
AMAZULUS, OR ZULUS.-The Zulu War.
See SOUTH AFRICA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS;
and the same: A. D. 1877-1879.
AMBACTI.
"The Celtic aristocracy [of Gaul] ... developed the system of
retainers, that is, the privilege of the nobility to surround
themselves with a number of hired mounted servants--the
ambacti as they were called--and thereby to form a state
within a state; and, resting on the support of these troops of
their own, they defied the legal authorities and the common
levy and practically broke up the commonwealth. ... This
remarkable word [ambacti] must have been in use as early as
the sixth century of Rome among the Celts in the valley of the
Po. ... It is not merely Celtic, however, but also German, the
root of our 'Amt,' as indeed the retainer-system itself is
common to the Celts and the Germans. It would be of great
historical importance to ascertain whether the word--and
therefore the thing--came to the Celts from the Germans or to
the Germans from the Celts. If, as is usually supposed, the
word is originally German and primarily signified the servant
standing in battle 'against the back' ('and '=against,
'bak'=back) of his master, this is not wholly irreconcilable
with the singularly early occurrence of the word among the
Celts. ... It is ... probable that the Celts, in Italy as in
Gaul, employed Germans chiefly as those hired
servants-at-arms. The 'Swiss guard' would therefore in that
case be some thousands of years older than people suppose."
T. Mommsen, History of Rome,
book 5, chapter 7, and foot-note.
AMBARRI, The.
A small tribe in Gaul which occupied anciently a district
between the Saone, the Rhone and the Ain.
Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 2, note.
AMBIANI, The.
See BELGÆ.
AMBITUS.
Bribery at elections was termed ambitus among the Romans, and
many unavailing laws were enacted to check it.
W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 9.
AMBIVARETI, The.
A tribe in ancient Gaul which occupied the left bank of the
Meuse, to the south of the marsh of Peel.
Napoleon III., History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, note.
AMBLEVE, Battle of (716.)
See FRANKS (MEROVINGIAN EMPIRE): A. D. 511-752.
AMBOISE, Conspiracy or Tumult of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561.
AMBOISE, Edict of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1560-1563.
AMBOYNA, Massacre of.
See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.
AMBRACIA (Ambrakia).
See KORKYRA.
AMBRONES, The.
See CIMBRI AND TEUTONES: B. C. 113-102.
AMBROSIAN CHURCH.--AMBROSIAN CHANT.
See MILAN: A. D. 374-397.
AMEIXAL, OR ESTREMOS, Battle of (1663).
See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1637-1668.

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AMERICA, The Name.
See below: A. D. 1500-1514.
AMERICA, Prehistoric.
"Widely scattered throughout the United States, from sea to
sea, artificial mounds are discovered, which may be enumerated
by the thousands or hundreds of thousands. They vary greatly
in size; some are so small that a half-dozen laborers with
shovels might construct one of them in a day, while others
cover acres and are scores of feet in height. These mounds
were observed by the earliest explorers and pioneers of the
country. They did not attract great attention, however, until
the science of archæology demanded their investigation. Then
they were assumed to furnish evidence of a race of people
older than the Indian tribes. Pseud-archæologists descanted on
the Mound-builders that once inhabited the land, and they told
of swarming populations who had reached a high condition of
culture, erecting temples, practicing arts in the metals, and
using hieroglyphs. So the Mound-builders formed the theme of
many an essay on the wonders of ancient civilization. The
research of the past ten or fifteen years has put this subject
in a proper light. First, the annals of the Columbian epoch
have been carefully studied, and it is found that some of the
mounds have been constructed in historical time, while early
explorers and settlers found many actually used by tribes of
North American Indians; so we know that many of them were
builders of mounds. Again, hundreds and thousands of these
mounds have been carefully examined, and the works of art
found therein have been collected and assembled in museums. At
the same time, the works of art of the Indian tribes, as they
were produced before modification by European culture, have
been assembled in the same museums, and the two classes of
collections have been carefully compared. All this has been
done with the greatest painstaking, and the Mound-builder's
arts and the Indian's arts are found to be substantially
identical. No fragment of evidence remains to support the
figment of theory that there was an ancient race of
Mound-builders superior in culture to the North American
Indians. ... That some of these mounds were built and used in
modern times is proved in another way. They often contain
articles manifestly made by white men, such as glass beads and
copper ornaments. ... So it chances that to-day unskilled
archæologists are collecting many beautiful things in copper,
stone, and shell which were made by white men and traded to
the Indians. Now, some of these things are found in the
mounds; and bird pipes, elephant pipes, banner stones, copper
spear heads and knives, and machine-made wampum are collected
in quantities and sold at high prices to wealthy amateurs. ...
The study of these mounds, historically and archæologically,
proves that they were used for a variety of purposes. Some
were for sepulture, and such are the most common and widely
scattered. Others were used as artificial hills on which to
build communal houses. ... Some of the very large mounds were
sites of large communal houses in which entire tribes dwelt.
There is still a third class ... constructed as places for
public assembly. ... But to explain the mounds and their uses
would expand this article into a book. It is enough to say
that the Mound-builders were the Indian tribes discovered by
white men. It may well be that some of the mounds were erected
by tribes extinct when Columbus first saw these shores, but
they were kindred in culture to the peoples that still
existed. In the southwestern portion of the United States,
conditions of aridity prevail. Forests are few and are found
only at great heights. ... The tribes lived in the plains and
valleys below, while the highlands were their hunting grounds.
The arid lands below were often naked of vegetation; and the
ledges and cliffs that stand athwart the lands, and the canyon
walls that inclose the streams, were everywhere quarries of
loose rock, lying in blocks ready to the builder's hand. Hence
these people learned to build their dwellings of stone; and
they had large communal houses, even larger than the
structures of wood made by the tribes of the east and north.
Many of these stone pueblos are still occupied, but the ruins
are scattered wide over a region of country embracing a little
of California and Nevada, much of Utah, most of Colorado, the
whole of New Mexico and Arizona, and far southward toward the
Isthmus. ... No ruin has been discovered where evidences of a
higher culture are found than exists in modern times at Zuni,
Oraibi, or Laguna. The earliest may have been built thousands
of years ago, but they were built by the ancestors of existing
tribes and their congeners. A careful study of these ruins,
made during the last twenty years, abundantly demonstrates
that the pueblo culture began with rude structures of stone
and brush, and gradually developed, until at the time of the
exploration of the country by the Spaniards, beginning about
1540, it had reached its highest phase. Zuni [in New Mexico]
has been built since, and it is among the largest and best
villages ever established within the territory of the United
States without the aid of ideas derived from civilized men."
With regard to the ruins of dwellings found sheltered in the
craters of extinct volcanoes, or on the shelves of cliffs, or
otherwise contrived, the conclusion to which all recent
archæological study tends is the same. "All the stone pueblo
ruins, all the clay ruins, all the cliff dwellings, all the
crater villages, all the cavate chambers, and all the
tufa-block houses are fully accounted for without resort to
hypothetical peoples inhabiting the country anterior to the
Indian tribes. ... Pre-Columbian culture was indigenous; it
began at the lowest stage of savagery and developed to the
highest, and was in many places passing into barbarism when
the good queen sold her jewels."
Major J. W. Powell, Prehistoric Man in America;
in "The Forum," January, 1890.
"The writer believes ... that the majority of American
archæologists now sees no sufficient reason for supposing that
any mysterious superior race has ever lived in any portion of
our continent. They find no archæological evidence proving
that at the time of its discovery any tribe had reached a
stage of culture that can properly be called civilization.
Even if we accept the exaggerated statements of the Spanish
conquerors, the most intelligent and advanced peoples found
here were only semi-barbarians, in the stage of transition
from the stone to the bronze age, possessing no written
language, or what can properly be styled an alphabet, and not
yet having even learned the use of beasts of burden."
H. W. Haynes, Prehistoric Archæology of North America
(volume 1, chapter 6, of "Narrative and Critical History of
America").
{47}
"It may be premised ... that the Spanish adventurers who
thronged to the New World after its discovery found the same
race of Red Indians in the West India Islands, in Central and
South America, in Florida and in Mexico. In their mode of life
and means of subsistence, in their weapons, arts, usages and
customs, in their institutions, and in their mental and
physical characteristics, they were the same people in
different stages of advancement. ... There was neither a
political society, nor a state, nor any civilization in
America when it was discovered; and excluding the Eskimos, but
one race of Indians, the Red Race."
L. H. Morgan, Houses and House-life of the American
Aborigines: (Contributions to North American Ethnology,
v, 5.), chapter 10.
"We have in this country the conclusive evidence of the
existence of man before the time of the glaciers, and from the
primitive conditions of that time, he has lived here and
developed, through stages which correspond in many particulars
to the Homeric age of Greece."
F. W. Putnam, Report, Peabody Museum of Archæology,
1886.
ALSO IN
L. Carr, The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley.
C. Thomas, Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the
United States: Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology,
1883-84.
Marquis de Nadaillac, Prehistoric America.
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 1.
See, also, MEXICO; PERU;
and AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALLEGHANS, CHEROKEES, and MAYAS.
AMERICA: 10th-11th Centuries.
Supposed Discoveries by the Northmen.
The fact that the Northmen knew of the existence of the
Western Continent prior to the age of Columbus, was
prominently brought before the people of this country in the
year 1837, when the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at
Copenhagen published their work on the Antiquities of North
America, under the editorial supervision of the great
Icelandic scholar, Professor Rafn. But we are not to suppose
that the first general account of these voyages was then
given, for it has always been known that the history of
certain early voyages to America by the Northmen were
preserved in the libraries of Denmark and Iceland. ... Yet,
owing to the fact that the Icelandic language, though simple
in construction and easy of acquisition, was a tongue not
understood by scholars, the subject has until recent years
been suffered to lie in the background, and permitted, through
a want of interest, to share in a measure the treatment meted
out to vague and uncertain reports. ... It now remains to give
the reader some general account of the contents of the
narratives which relate more or less to the discovery of the
western continent. ... The first extracts given are very
brief. They are taken from the 'Landanama Book,' and relate to
the report in general circulation, which indicated one
Gunniborn as the discoverer of Greenland, an event which has
been fixed at the year 876. ... The next narrative relates to
the rediscovery of Greenland by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in
983, who there passed three years in exile, and afterwards
returned to Iceland. About the year 986, he brought out to
Greenland a considerable colony of settlers, who fixed their
abode at Brattahlid, in Ericsfiord. Then follow two versions
of the voyage of Biarne Heriulfson, who, in the same year,
986, when sailing for Greenland, was driven away during a
storm, and saw a new land at the southward, which he did not
visit. Next is given three accounts of the voyage of Leif, son
of Eric the Red, who in the year 1000 sailed from Brattahlid
to find the land which Biarne saw. Two of these accounts are
hardly more than notices of the voyage, but the third is of
considerable length, and details the successes of Leif, who
found and explored this new land, where he spent the winter,
returning to Greenland the following spring [having named
different regions which he visited Helluland, Markland and
Vinland, the latter name indicative of the finding of grapes].
After this follows the voyage of Thorvald Ericson, brother of
Leif, who sailed to Vinland from Greenland, which was the
point of departure in all these voyages. This expedition was
begun in 1002, and it cost him his life, as an arrow from one
of the natives pierced his side, causing death. Thorstein, his
brother, went to seek Vinland, with the intention of bringing
home his body, but failed in the attempt. The most
distinguished explorer was Thorfinn Karlsefne, the Hopeful, an
Icelander whose genealogy runs back in the old Northern
annals, through Danish, Swedish, and even Scotch and Irish
ancestors, some of whom were of royal blood. In the year 1006
he went to Greenland, where he met Gudrid, widow of Thorstein,
whom he married. Accompanied by his wife, who urged him to the
undertaking, he sailed to Vinland in the spring of 1007, with
three vessels and 160 men, where he remained three years. Here
his son Snorre was born. He afterwards became the founder of a
great family in Iceland, which gave the island several of its
first bishops. Thorfinn finally left Vinland because he found
it difficult to sustain himself against the attacks of the
natives. The next to undertake a voyage was a wicked woman
named Freydis, a sister to Leif Ericson, who went to Vinland
in 1011, where she lived for a time with her two ships, in the
same places occupied by Leif and Thorfinn. Before she
returned, she caused the crew of one ship to be cruelly
murdered, assisting in the butchery with her own hands. After
this we have what are called the Minor Narratives, which are
not essential.
B. F. De Costa, Pre-Columban Discovery of America,
General Introduction.
By those who accept fully the claims made for the Northmen, as
discoverers of the American continent in the voyages believed
to be authentically narrated in these sagas, the Helluland of
Leif is commonly identified with Newfoundland, Markland with
Nova Scotia, and Vinland with various parts of New England.
Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod, Nantucket Island, Martha's
Vineyard, Buzzard's Bay, Narragansett Bay, Mount Hope Bay,
Long Island Sound, and New York Bay are among the localities
supposed to be recognized in the Norse narratives, or marked
by some traces of the presence of the Viking explorers. Professor
Gustav Storm, the most recent of the Scandinavian
investigators of this subject, finds the Helluland of the
sagas in Labrador or Northern Newfoundland, Markland in
Newfoundland, and Vinland in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton
Island.
G. Storm, Studies of the Vineland Voyages.
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"The only discredit which has been thrown upon the story of
the Vinland voyages, in the eyes either of scholars or of the
general public, has arisen from the eager credulity with which
ingenious antiquarians have now and then tried to prove more
than facts will warrant. ... Archælogical remains of the
Northmen abound in Greenland, all the way from Immartinek to
near Cape Farewell; the existence of one such relic on the
North American continent has never yet been proved. Not a
single vestige of the Northmen's presence here, at all worthy
of credence, has ever been found. ... The most convincing
proof that the Northmen never founded a colony in America,
south of Davis Strait, is furnished by the total absence of
horses, cattle and other domestic animals from the soil of
North America until they were brought hither by the Spanish,
French and English settlers."
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 2.
"What Leif and Karlsefne knew they experienced," writes Professor
Justin Winsor, "and what the sagas tell us they underwent,
must have just the difference between a crisp narrative of
personal adventure and the oft-repeated and embellished story
of a fireside narrator, since the traditions of the Norse
voyages were not put in the shape of records till about two
centuries had elapsed, and we have no earlier manuscript of
such a record than one made nearly two hundred years later
still. ... A blending of history and myth prompts Horn to say
that 'some of the sagas were doubtless originally based on
facts, but the telling and retelling have changed them into
pure myths.' The unsympathetic stranger sees this in stories
that the patriotic Scandinavians are over-anxious to make
appear as genuine chronicles. ... The weight of probability is
in favor of a Northman descent upon the coast of the American
mainland at some point, or at several, somewhere to the south
of Greenland; but the evidence is hardly that which attaches
to well established historical records. ... There is not a
single item of all the evidence thus advanced from time to
time which can be said to connect by archæological traces the
presence of the Northmen on the soil of North America south of
Davis' Straits." Of other imagined pre-Columban discoveries of
America, by the Welsh, by the Arabs, by the Basques, &c., the
possibilities and probabilities are critically discussed by
Professor Winsor in the same connection.
J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 1, chapter 2, and Critical Notes to the same.
ALSO IN
Bryant and Gay, Popular History of the United States,
chapter 3.
E. F. Slafter, Editor,
Voyages of the Northmen to America (Prince Society, 1877).
E. F. Slafter, Editor,
Discovery of America by the Northmen (N. H. History
Society, 1888).
N. L. Beamish, Discovery of America by the
Northmen.
A. J. Weise, Discoveries of America, chapter 1.
AMERICA: A. D. 1484-1492.
The great project of Columbus, and the sources of its inspiration.
His seven years' suit at the Spanish Court.
His departure from Palos.
"All attempts to diminish the glory of Columbus' achievement
by proving a previous discovery whose results were known to
him have signally failed. ... Columbus originated no new
theory respecting the earth's form or size, though a popular
idea has always prevailed, notwithstanding the statements of
the best writers to the contrary, that he is entitled to the
glory of the theory as well as to that of the execution of the
project. He was not in advance of his age, entertained no new
theories, believed no more than did Prince Henry, his
predecessor, or Toscanelli, his contemporary; nor was he the
first to conceive the possibility of reaching the east by
sailing west. He was however the first to act in accordance
with existing beliefs. The Northmen in their voyages had
entertained no ideas of a New World, or of an Asia to the
West. To knowledge of theoretical geography, Columbus added
the skill of a practical navigator, and the iron will to
overcome obstacles. He sailed west, reached Asia as he
believed, and proved old theories correct. There seem to be
two undecided points in that matter, neither of which can ever
be settled. First, did his experience in the Portuguese
voyages, the perusal of some old author, or a hint from one of
the few men acquainted with old traditions, first suggest to
Columbus his project? ... Second, to what extent did his
voyage to the north [made in 1477, probably with an English
merchantman from Bristol, in which voyage he is believed to
have visited Iceland] influence his plan? There is no
evidence, but a strong probability, that he heard in that
voyage of the existence of land in the west. ... Still, his
visit to the north was in 1477, several years after the first
formation of his plan, and any information gained at the time
could only have been confirmatory rather than suggestive."
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 1,
summary appendix to chapter 1.
"Of the works of learned men, that which, according to
Ferdinand Columbus, had most weight with his father, was the
'Cosmographia' of Cardinal Aliaco. Columbus was also confirmed
in his views of the existence of a western passage to the
Indies by Paulo Toscanelli, the Florentine philosopher, to
whom much credit is due for the encouragement he afforded to
the enterprise. That the notices, however, of western lands
were not such as to have much weight with other men, is
sufficiently proved by the difficulty which Columbus had in
contending with adverse geographers and men of science in
general, of whom he says he never was able to convince any
one. After a new world had been discovered, many scattered
indications were then found to have foreshown it. One thing
which cannot be denied to Columbus is that he worked out his
own idea himself. ... He first applied himself to his
countrymen, the Genoese, who would have nothing to say to his
scheme. He then tried the Portuguese, who listened to what he
had to say, but with bad faith sought to anticipate him by
sending out a caravel with instructions founded upon his plan.
... Columbus, disgusted at the treatment he had received from
the Portuguese Court, quitted Lisbon, and, after visiting
Genoa, as it appears, went to see what favour he could meet
with in Spain, arriving at Palos in the year 1485." The story
of the long suit of Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and
Isabella; of his discouragement and departure, with intent to
go to France; of his recall by command of Queen Isabella; of
the tedious hearings and negotiations that now took place; of
the lofty demands adhered to by the confident Genoese, who
required "to be made an admiral at once, to be appointed
viceroy of the countries he should discover, and to have an
eighth of the profits of the expedition;" of his second
rebuff, his second departure for France, and second recall by
Isabella, who finally put her heart into the enterprise and
persuaded her more skeptical consort to assent to it--the
story of those seven years of the struggle of Columbus to
obtain means for his voyage is familiar to all readers.
{49}
"The agreement between Columbus and their Catholic highnesses
was signed at Santa Fe on the 17th of April, 1492; and
Columbus went to Palos to make preparation for his voyage,
bearing with him an order that the two vessels which that city
furnished annually to the crown for three months should be
placed at his disposal. ... The Pinzons, rich men and skilful
mariners of Palos, joined in the undertaking, subscribing an
eighth of the expenses; and thus, by these united exertions,
three vessels were manned with 90 mariners, and provisioned
for a year. At length all the preparations were complete, and
on a Friday (not inauspicious in this case), the 3d of August,
1492, after they had all confessed and received the sacrament,
they set sail from the bar of Saltes, making for the Canary
Islands."
Sir A. Helps, The Spanish Conquest in America, book 2,
chapter 1.
ALSO IN
J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, chapter 5-9, and 20.
AMERICA: A. D. 1492.
The First Voyage of Columbus.
Discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti.
The three vessels of Columbus were called the Santa Maria, the
Pinta and the Nina. "All had forecastles and high poops, but
the 'Santa Maria' was the only one that was decked amidships,
and she was called a 'nao' or ship. The other two were
caravelas, a class of small vessels built for speed. The
'Santa Maria,' as I gather from scattered notices in the
letters of Columbus, was of 120 to 130 tons, like a modern
coasting schooner, and she carried 70 men, much crowded. Her
sails were a foresail and a foretop-sail, a sprit-sail, a
main-sail with two bonnets, and maintop sail, a mizzen, and a
boat's sail were occasionally hoisted on the poop. The 'Pinta'
and 'Nina' only had square sails on the foremast and lateen
sails on the main and mizzen. The former was 50 tons, the
latter 40 tons, with crews of 20 men each. On Friday, the 3d
of August, the three little vessels left the haven of Palos,
and this memorable voyage was commenced. ... The expedition
proceeded to the Canary Islands, where the rig of the 'Pinta'
was altered. Her lateen sails were not adapted for running
before the wind, and she was therefore fitted with square
sails, like the 'Santa Maria.' Repairs were completed, the
vessels were filled up with wood and water at Gomera, and the
expedition took its final departure from the island of Gomera,
one of the Canaries, on September 6th, 1492. ... Columbus had
chosen his route most happily, and with that fortunate
prevision which often waits upon genius. From Gomera, by a
course a little south of west, he would run down the trades to
the Bahama Islands. From the parallel of about 30° N. nearly
to the equator there is a zone of perpetual winds--namely, the
north-east trade winds--always moving in the same direction,
as steadily as the current of a river, except where they are
turned aside by local causes, so that the ships of Columbus
were steadily carried to their destination by a law of nature
which, in due time, revealed itself to that close observer of
her secrets. The constancy of the wind was one cause of alarm
among the crews, for they began to murmur that the provisions
would all be exhausted if they had to beat against these
unceasing winds on the return voyage. The next event which
excited alarm among the pilots was the discovery that the
compasses had more than a point of easterly variation. ...
This was observed on the 17th of September, and about 300
miles westward of the meridian of the Azores, when the ships
had been eleven days at sea. Soon afterwards the voyagers
found themselves surrounded by masses of seaweed, in what is
called the Sargasso Sea, and this again aroused their fears.
They thought that the ships would get entangled in the beds of
weed and become immovable, and that the beds marked the limit
of navigation. The cause of this accumulation is well known
now. If bits of cork are put into a basin of water, and a
circular motion given to it, all the corks will be found
crowding together towards the centre of the pool where there
is the least motion. The Atlantic Ocean is just such a basin,
the Gulf Stream is the whirl, and the Sargasso Sea is in the
centre. There Columbus found it, and there it has remained to
this day, moving up and down and changing its position
according to seasons, storms and winds, but never altering its
mean position. ... As day after day passed, and there was no
sign of land, the crews became turbulent and mutinous.
Columbus encouraged them with hopes of reward, while he told
them plainly that he had come to discover India, and that,
with the help of God, he would persevere until he found it. At
length, on the 11th of October, towards ten at night, Columbus
was on the poop and saw a light. ... At two next morning, land
was distinctly seen. ... The island, called by the natives
Guanahani, and by Columbus San Salvador, has now been
ascertained to be Watling Island, one of the Bahamas, 14 miles
long by 6 broad, with a brackish lake in the centre, in 24°
10' 30'' north latitude. ... The difference of latitude
between Gomera and Watling Island is 235 miles. Course, West 5°
South; distance 3,114 miles; average distance made good daily,
85'; voyage 35 days. ... After discovering several smaller
islands the fleet came in sight of Cuba on the 27th October,
and explored part of the northern coast. Columbus believed it
to be Cipango, the island placed on the chart of Toscanelli,
between Europe and Asia. ... Crossing the channel between Cuba
and St. Domingo [or Hayti], they anchored in the harbour of
St. Nicholas Mole on December 4th. The natives came with
presents and the country was enchanting. Columbus ... named
the island 'Española' [or Hispaniola]. But with all this
peaceful beauty around him he was on the eve of disaster." The
Santa Maria was drifted by a strong current upon a sand bank
and hopelessly wrecked. "It was now necessary to leave a small
colony on the island. ... A fort was built and named 'La
Navidad,' 39 men remaining behind supplied with stores and
provisions," and on Friday, January 4, 1493, Columbus began his
homeward voyage. Weathering a dangerous gale, which lasted
several days, his little vessels reached the Azores February 17,
and arrived at Palos March 15, bearing their marvellous news.
C. R. Markham, The Sea Fathers, chapter 2.
C. R. Markham, Life of Columbus, chapter 5.
{50}
The statement above that the island of the Bahamas on which
Columbus first landed, and which he called San Salvador, "has
now been ascertained to be Watling Island" seems hardly
justified. The question between Watling Island, San Salvador
or Cat Island, Samana, or Attwood's Cay, Mariguana, the Grand
Turk, and others is still in dispute. Professor Justin Winsor
says "the weight of modern testimony seems to favor Watling's
Island;" but at the same time he thinks it "probable that men
will never quite agree which of the Bahamas it was upon which
these startled and exultant Europeans first stepped."
J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, chapter 9.
J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 2, chapter 1, note B.
Professor John Fiske, says: "All that can be positively
asserted of Guanahani is that it was one of the Bahamas; there
has been endless discussion as to which one, and the question
is not easy to settle. Perhaps the theory of Captain Gustavus
Fox, of the United States Navy, is on the whole best
supported. Captain Fox maintains that the true Guanahani was
the little Island now known as Samana or Attwood's Cay."
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 5 (volume 1).
ALSO IN
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Report, 1880,
appendix 18.
AMERICA: A. D. 1493.
Papal grant of the New World to Spain.
"Spain was at this time connected with the Pope about a most
momentous matter. The Genoese, Cristoforo Colombo, arrived at
the Spanish court in March, 1493, with the astounding news of
the discovery of a new continent. ... Ferdinand and Isabella
thought it wise to secure a title to all that might ensue from
their new discovery. The Pope, as Vicar of Christ, was held to
have authority to dispose of lands inhabited by the heathen;
and by papal Bulls the discoveries of Portugal along the
African coast had been secured. The Portuguese showed signs of
urging claims to the New World, as being already conveyed to
them by the papal grants previously issued in their favour. To
remove all cause of dispute, the Spanish monarchs at once had
recourse to Alexander VI., who issued two Bulls on May 4 and 5
[1493] to determine the respective rights of Spain and
Portugal. In the first, the Pope granted to the Spanish
monarchs and their heirs all lands discovered or hereafter to
be discovered in the western ocean. In the second, he defined
his grant to mean all lands that might be discovered west and
south of an imaginary line, drawn from the North to the South
Pole, at the distance of a hundred leagues westward of the
Azores and Cape de Verd Islands. In the light of our present
knowledge we are amazed at this simple means of disposing of a
vast extent of the earth's surface." Under the Pope's
stupendous patent, Spain was able to claim every part of the
American Continent except the Brazilian coast.
M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the
Reformation, book 5, chapter 6 (volume 3).
ALSO IN
E. G. Bourne, The Demarcation Line of Pope Alexander VI.
(Yale Review., May, 1892).
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 6 (volume 1).
J. Gordon, The Bulls distributing America
(American Society of Ch. Dist., volume 4).
See, also, below: A. D. 1494.
AMERICA: A. D. 1493-1496.
The Second Voyage of Columbus.
Discovery of Jamaica and the Caribbees.
Subjugation of Hispaniola.
"The departure of Columbus on his second voyage of discovery
presented a brilliant contrast to his gloomy embarkation at
Palos. On the 25th of September [1493], at the dawn of day the
bay of Cadiz was whitened by his fleet: There were three large
ships of heavy burden and fourteen caravels. ... Before
sunrise the whole fleet was under way." Arrived at the
Canaries on the 1st of October, Columbus purchased there
calves, goats, sheep, hogs, and fowls, with which to stock the
island of Hispaniola; also "seeds of oranges, lemons,
bergamots, melons, and various orchard fruits, which were thus
first introduced into the islands of the west from the
Hesperides or Fortunate Islands of the Old World." It was not
until the 13th of October that the fleet left the Canaries,
and it arrived among the islands since called the Lesser
Antilles or Caribbees, on the evening of November 2. Sailing
through this archipelago, discovering the larger island of
Porto Rico on the way, Columbus reached the eastern extremity
of Hispaniola or Hayti on the 22d of November, and arrived on
the 27th at La Navidad, where he had left a garrison ten
months before. He found nothing but ruin, silence and the
marks of death, and learned, after much inquiry, that his
unfortunate men, losing all discipline after his departure,
had provoked the natives by rapacity and licentiousness until
the latter rose against them and destroyed them. Abandoning
the scene of this disaster, Columbus found an excellent harbor
ten leagues east of Monte Christi and there he began the
founding of a city which he named Isabella. "Isabella at the
present day is quite overgrown with forests, in the midst of
which are still to be seen, partly standing, the pillars of
the church, some remains of the king's storehouses, and part
of the residence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone." While
the foundations of the new city were being laid, Columbus sent
back part of his ships to Spain, and undertook an exploration
of the interior of the island--the mountains of Cibao--where
abundance of gold was promised. Some gold washings were
found--far too scanty to satisfy the expectations of the
Spaniards; and, as want and sickness soon made their
appearance at Isabella, discontent was rife and mutiny afoot
before the year had ended. In April, 1494, Columbus set sail
with three caravels to revisit the coast of Cuba, for a more
extended exploration than he had attempted on the first
discovery. "He supposed it to be a continent, and the extreme
end of Asia, and if so, by following its shores in the
proposed direction he must eventually arrive at Cathay and
those other rich and commercial, though semi-barbarous
countries, described by Mandeville and Marco Polo." Reports of
gold led him southward from Cuba until he discovered the
island which he called Santiago, but which has kept its native
name, Jamaica, signifying the Island of Springs. Disappointed
in the search for gold, he soon returned from Jamaica to Cuba
and sailed along its southern coast to very near the western
extremity, confirming himself and his followers in the belief
that they skirted the shores of Asia and might follow them to
the Red Sea, if their ships and stores were equal to so long a
voyage. "Two or three days' further sail would have carried
Columbus round the extremity of Cuba; would have dispelled his
illusion, and might have given an entirely different course to
his subsequent discoveries. In his present conviction he lived
and died; believing to his last hour that Cuba was the
extremity of the Asiatic continent."
{51}
Returning eastward, he visited Jamaica again and purposed some
further exploration of the Caribbee Islands, when his toils
and anxieties overcame him. "He fell into a deep lethargy,
resembling death itself. His crew, alarmed at this profound
torpor, feared that death was really at hand. They abandoned,
therefore, all further prosecution of the voyage; and
spreading their sails to the east wind so prevalent in those
seas, bore Columbus back, in a state of complete
insensibility, to the harbor of Isabella,"--Sept. 4.
Recovering consciousness, the admiral was rejoiced to find his
brother Bartholomew, from whom he had been separated for
years, and who had been sent out to him from Spain, in command
of three ships. Otherwise there was little to give pleasure to
Columbus when he returned to Isabella. His followers were
again disorganized, again at war with the natives, whom they
plundered and licentiously abused, and a mischief-making
priest had gone back to Spain, along with certain intriguing
officers, to make complaints and set enmities astir at the
court. Involved in war, Columbus prosecuted it relentlessly,
reduced the island to submission and the natives to servitude
and misery by heavy exactions. In March 1496 he returned to
Spain, to defend himself against the machinations of his
enemies, transferring the government of Hispaniola to his
brother Bartholomew.
W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus, books 6-8
(volumes 1-2).
ALSO IN
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 2.
J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, chapter 12-14.
AMERICA: A. D. 1494.
The Treaty of Tordesillas.
Amended Partition of the New World between Spain and Portugal.
"When speaking or writing of the conquest of America, it is
generally believed that the only title upon which were based
the conquests of Spain and Portugal was the famous Papal Bull
of partition of the Ocean, of 1493. Few modern authors take
into consideration that this Bull was amended, upon the
petition of the King of Portugal, by the [Treaty of
Tordesillas], signed by both powers in 1494, augmenting the
portion assigned to the Portuguese in the partition made
between them of the Continent of America. The arc of meridian
fixed by this treaty as a dividing line, which gave rise,
owing to the ignorance of the age, to so many diplomatic
congresses and interminable controversies, may now be traced
by any student of elementary mathematics. This line ... runs
along the meridian of 47° 32' 56" west of Greenwich. ... The
name Brazil, or 'tierra del Brazil,' at that time [the middle
of the 16th century] referred only to the part of the
continent producing the dye wood so-called. Nearly two
centuries later the Portuguese advanced toward the South, and
the name Brazil then covered the new possessions they were
acquiring."
L. L. Dominguez, Introduction to "The Conquest of the
River Plate" (Hakluyt Society Publications. No. 81).
AMERICA: A. D. 1497.
Discovery of the North American Continent by John Cabot.
"The achievement of Columbus, revealing the wonderful truth of
which the germ may have existed in the imagination of every
thoughtful mariner, won [in England] the admiration which
belonged to genius that seemed more divine than human; and
'there was great talk of it in all the court of Henry VII.' A
feeling of disappointment remained, that a series of disasters
had defeated the wish of the illustrious Genoese to make his
voyage of essay under the flag of England. It was, therefore,
not difficult for John Cabot, a denizen of Venice, residing at
Bristol, to interest that politic king in plans for discovery.
On the 5th of March, 1496, he obtained under the great seal a
commission empowering himself and his three sons, or either of
them, their heirs, or their deputies, to sail into the
eastern, western, or northern sea with a fleet of five ships,
at their own expense, in search of islands, provinces, or
regions hitherto unseen by Christian people; to affix the
banners of England on city, island, or continent; and, as
vassals of the English crown, to possess and occupy the
territories that might be found. It was further stipulated in
this 'most ancient American State paper of England,' that the
patentees should be strictly bound, on every return, to land
at the port of Bristol, and to pay to the king one-fifth part
of their gains; while the exclusive right of frequenting all
the countries that might be found was reserved to them and to
their assigns' without limit of time. Under this patent,
which, at the first direction of English enterprise toward
America, embodied the worst features of monopoly and
commercial restriction, John Cabot, taking with him his son
Sebastian, embarked in quest of new islands and a passage to
Asia by the north-west. After sailing prosperously, as he
reported, for 700 leagues, on the 24th day of June, early in
the morning, almost fourteen months before Columbus on his
third voyage came in sight of the main, and more than two
years before Amerigo Vespucci sailed west of the Canaries, he
discovered the western continent, probably in the latitude of
about 56° degrees, among the dismal cliffs of Labrador. He ran
along the coast for many leagues, it is said even for 300, and
landed on what he considered to be the territory of the Grand
Cham. But he encountered no human being, although there were
marks that the region was inhabited. He planted on the land a
large cross with the flag of England, and, from affection for
the republic of Venice, he added the banner of St. Mark, which
had never been borne so far before. On his homeward voyage he
saw on his right hand two islands, which for want of
provisions he could not stop to explore. After an absence of
three months the great discoverer re-entered Bristol harbor,
where due honors awaited him. The king gave him money, and
encouraged him to continue his career, The people called him
the great admiral; he dressed in silk; and the English, and
even Venetians who chanced to be at Bristol, ran after him
with such zeal that he could enlist for a new voyage as many
as he pleased. ... On the third day of the month of February
next after his return, 'John Kaboto, Venecian,' accordingly
obtained a power to take up ships for another voyage, at the
rates fixed for those employed in the service of the king, and
once more to set sail with as many companions as would go with
him of their own will. With this license every trace of John
Cabot disappears. He may have died before the summer; but no
one knows certainly the time or the place of his end, and it
has not even been ascertained in what country this finder of a
continent first saw the light."
G. Bancroft, History of the U. S. of Am. (Author's last Revision), part 1, chapter 1.
{52}
In the Critical Essay appended to a chapter on the voyages of the
Cabots, in the Narrative and Critical History of America,
there is published, for the first time, an English translation
of a dispatch from Raimondo de Soncino, envoy of the Duke of
Milan to Henry VII., written Aug. 24, 1497, and giving an
account of the voyage from which 'Master John Caboto,' 'a
Venetian fellow,' had just returned. This paper was brought to
light in 1865, from the State Archives of Milan. Referring to
the dispatch, and to a letter, also quoted, from the 'Venetian
Calendars,' written Aug. 23, 1497, by Lorenzo Pasqualigo, a
merchant in London, to his brothers in Venice, Mr. Charles
Deane says: "These letters are sufficient to show that North
America was discovered by John Cabot, the name of Sebastian
being nowhere mentioned in them, and that the discovery was
made in 1497. The place which he first sighted is given on the
map of 1544 in 1843] as the north part of Cape Breton Island, on which is
inscribed 'prima tierra vista,' which was reached, according
to the Legend, on the 24th of June. Pasqualigo, the only one
who mentions it, says he coasted 300 leagues. Mr. Brevoort,
who accepts the statement, thinks he made the periplus of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, passing out at the Straits of Belle
Isle, and thence home. ... The extensive sailing up and down
the coast described by chroniclers from conversations with
Sebastian Cabot many years afterwards, though apparently told
as occurring on the voyage of discovery--as only one voyage is
ever mentioned--must have taken place on a later voyage."
C. Deane, Narrative and Critical History of America, volume
3, chapter 1, Crit. Essay.
ALSO IN
R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, chapter 1-8.
AMERICA: A. D. 1497-1498.
The first Voyage of Americus Vespucius.
Misunderstandings and disputes concerning it.
Vindication of the Florentine navigator.
His exploration of 4,000 miles of continental coast.
"Our information concerning Americus Vespucius, from the early
part of the year 1496 until after his return from the
Portuguese to the Spanish service in the latter part of 1504,
rests primarily upon his two famous letters; the one addressed
to his old patron Lorenzo di Pier Francesco de' Medici (a
cousin of Lorenzo the Magnificent) and written in March or
April, 1503, giving an account of his third voyage; the other
addressed to his old school-fellow Piero Soderini [then
Gonfaloniere of Florence] and dated from Lisbon, September 4,
1504, giving a brief account of four voyages which he had made
under various commanders in the capacity of astronomer or
pilot. These letters ... became speedily popular, and many
editions were published, more especially in France, Germany,
and Italy. ... The letter to Soderini gives an account of four
voyages in which the writer took part, the first two in the
service of Spain, the other two in the service of Portugal.
The first expedition sailed from Cadiz May 10, 1497, and
returned October 15, 1498, after having explored a coast so
long as to seem unquestionably that of a continent. This
voyage, as we shall see, was concerned with parts of America
not visited again until 1513 and 1517. It discovered nothing
that was calculated to invest it with much importance in
Spain, though it by no means passed without notice there, as
has often been wrongly asserted. Outside of Spain it came to
attract more attention, but in an unfortunate way, for a
slight but very serious error in proof-reading or editing, in
the most important of the Latin versions, caused it after a
while to be practically identified with the second voyage,
made two years later. This confusion eventually led to most
outrageous imputations upon the good name of Americus, which
it has been left for the present century to remove. The second
voyage of Vespucius was that in which he accompanied Alonso de
Ojeda and Juan de la Costa, from May 20, 1499, to June, 1500.
They explored the northern coast of South America from some
point on what we would now call the north coast of Brazil, as
far as the Pearl Coast visited by Columbus in the preceding
year; and they went beyond, as far as the Gulf of Maracaibo.
Here the squadron seems to have become divided, Ojeda going
over to Hispaniola in September, while Vespucius remained
cruising till February. ... It is certainly much to be
regretted that in the narrative of his first expedition,
Vespucius did not happen to mention the name of the chief
commander. ... However ... he was writing not for us, but for
his friend, and he told Soderini only what he thought would
interest him. ... Of the letter to Soderini the version which
has played the most important part in history is the Latin one
first published at the press of the little college at
Saint-Dié in Lorraine, April 25 (vij Kl' Maij), 1507. ... It
was translated, not from an original text, but from an
intermediate French version, which is lost. Of late years,
however, we have detected, in an excessively rare Italian
text, the original from which the famous Lorraine version was
ultimately derived. ... If now we compare this primitive text
with the Latin of the Lorraine version of 1507, we observe
that, in the latter, one proper name--the Indian name of a
place visited by Americus on his first voyage--has been
altered. In the original it is 'Lariab;' in the Latin it has
become 'Parias.' This looks like an instance of injudicious
editing on the part of the Latin translator, although, of
course, it may be a case of careless proof-reading. Lariab is
a queer-looking word. It is no wonder that a scholar in his
study among the mountains of Lorraine could make nothing of
it. If he had happened to be acquainted with the language of
the Huastecas, who dwelt at that time about the river
Panuco--fierce and dreaded enemies of their southern
neighbours the Aztecs--he would have known that names of
places in that region were apt to end in ab. ... But as such
facts were quite beyond our worthy translator's ken, we cannot
much blame him if he felt that such a word as Lariab needed
doctoring. Parias (Paria) was known to be the native name of a
region on the western shores of the Atlantic, and so Lariab
became Parias. As the distance from the one place to the other
is more than two thousand miles, this little emendation
shifted the scene of the first voyage beyond all recognition,
and cast the whole subject into an outer darkness where there
has been much groaning and gnashing of teeth. Another curious
circumstance came in to confirm this error. On his first
voyage, shortly before arriving at Lariab, Vespucius saw an
Indian town built over the water, 'like Venice.' He counted 44
large wooden houses, 'like barracks,' supported on huge tree-
trunks and communicating with each other by bridges that could
be drawn up in case of danger.
{53}
This may well have been a village of communal houses of the
Chontals on the coast of Tabasco; but such villages were
afterwards seen on the Gulf of Maracaibo, and one of them was
called Venezuela, or 'Little Venice,' a name since spread over
a territory nearly twice as large as France. So the amphibious
town described by Vespucius was incontinently moved to
Maracaibo, as if there could be only one such place, as if
that style of defensive building had not been common enough in
many ages and in many parts of the earth, from ancient
Switzerland to modern Siam. ... Thus in spite of the latitudes
and longitudes distinctly stated by Vespucius in his letter,
did Lariab and the little wooden Venice get shifted from the
Gulf of Mexico to the northern coast of South America. Now
there is no question that Vespucius in his second voyage, with
Ojeda for captain, did sail along that coast, visiting the
gulfs of Paria and Maracaibo. This was in the summer of 1499,
one year after a part of the same coast had been visited by
Columbus. Hence in a later period, long after the actors in
these scenes had been gathered unto their fathers, and when
people had begun to wonder how the New World could ever have
come to be called America instead of Columbia, it was
suggested that the first voyage described by Vespucius must be
merely a clumsy and fictitious duplicate of the second, and
that he invented it and thrust it back from 1499 to 1497, in
order that he might be accredited with 'the discovery of the
continent' one year in advance of his friend Columbus. It was
assumed that he must have written his letter to Soderini with
the base intention of supplanting his friend, and that the
shabby device was successful. This explanation seemed so
simple and intelligible that it became quite generally
adopted, and it held its ground until the subject began to be
critically studied, and Alexander von Humboldt showed, about
sixty years ago, that the first naming of America occurred in
no such way as had been supposed. As soon as we refrain from
projecting our modern knowledge of geography into the past, as
soon as we pause to consider how these great events appeared
to the actors themselves, the absurdity of this accusation
against Americus becomes evident. We arc told that he falsely
pretended to have visited Paria and Maracaibo in 1497, in
order to claim priority over Columbus in the discovery of 'the
continent.' What continent? When Vespucius wrote that letter
to Soderini, neither he nor anybody else suspected that what
we now call America had been discovered. The only continent of
which there could be any question, so far as supplanting
Columbus was concerned, was Asia. But in 1504 Columbus was
generally supposed to have discovered the continent of Asia,
by his new route, in 1492. ... It was M. Varnhagen who first
turned inquiry on this subject in the right direction. ...
Having taken a correct start by simply following the words of
Vespucius himself, from a primitive text, without reference to
any preconceived theories or traditions, M. Varnhagen finds"
that Americus in his first voyage made land on the northern
coast of Honduras; "that he sailed around Yucatan, and found
his aquatic village of communal houses, his little wooden
Venice, on the shore of Tabasco. Thence, after a fight with
the natives in which a few tawny prisoners were captured and
carried on board the caravels, Vespucius seems to have taken a
straight course to the Huasteca country by Tampico, without
touching at points in the region subject or tributary to the
Aztec confederacy. This Tampico country was what Vespucius
understood to be called Lariab. He again gives the latitude
definitely and correctly as 23° N., and he mentions a few
interesting circumstances. He saw the natives roasting a
dreadfully ugly animal," of which he gives what seems to be
"an excellent description of the iguana, the flesh of which is
to this day an important article of food in tropical America.
... After leaving this country of Lariab the ships kept still
to the northwest for a short distance, and then followed the
windings of the coast for 870 leagues. ... After traversing
the 870 leagues of crooked coast, the ships found themselves
'in the finest harbour in the world' [which M. Varnhagen
supposed, at first, to have been in Chesapeake Bay, but
afterwards reached conclusions pointing to the neighbourhood
of Cape Cañaveral, on the Florida coast]. It was in June,
1498, thirteen months since they had started from Spain. ...
They spent seven-and-thirty days in this unrivalled harbour,
preparing for the home voyage, and found the natives very
hospitable. These red men courted the aid of the white
strangers," in an attack which they wished to make upon a
fierce race of cannibals, who inhabited certain islands some
distance out to sea. The Spaniards agreed to the expedition,
and sailed late in August, taking seven of the friendly
Indians for guides. "After a week's voyage they fell in with
the islands, some peopled, others uninhabited, evidently the
Bermudas, 600 miles from Cape Hatteras as the crow flies. The
Spaniards landed on an island called Iti, and had a brisk
fight," resulting in the capture of more than 200 prisoners.
Seven of these were given to the Indian guides, who paddled
home with them. "'We also [wrote Vespucius] set sail for
Spain, with 222 prisoners, slaves; and arrived in the port of
Cadiz on the 15th day of October, 1498, where we were well
received and sold our slaves.' ... The obscurity in which this
voyage has so long been enveloped is due chiefly to the fact
that it was not followed up till many years had elapsed, and
the reason for this neglect impresses upon us forcibly the
impossibility of understanding the history of the Discovery of
America unless we bear in mind all the attendant
circumstances. One might at first suppose that a voyage which
revealed some 4,000 miles of the coast of North America would
have attracted much attention in Spain and have become
altogether too famous to be soon forgotten. Such an argument,
however, loses sight of the fact that these early voyagers
were not trying to 'discover America.' There was nothing to
astonish them in the existence of 4,000 miles of coast line on
this side of the Atlantic. To their minds it was simply the
coast of Asia, about which they knew nothing except from Marco
Polo, and the natural effect of such a voyage as this would be
simply to throw discredit upon that traveller."
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 7 (volume 2).
ALSO IN:
C. E. Lester and A. Foster, Life and Voyages of Americus
Vespucius, part 1, chapter 7.
J. Winsor, Christopher Columbus, chapter 15.
{54}
AMERICA: A. D. 1498.
Voyage and Discoveries of Sebastian Cabot.
The ground of English claims in the New World.

"The son of John Cabot, Sebastian, is not mentioned in this
patent [issued by Henry VII., February 3, 1498], as he had been in
that of 1496. Yet he alone profited by it. For the father is
not again mentioned in connection with the voyage. ...
Sebastian was now, if Humboldt's supposition is true that he
was born in 1477, a young man of about 20 or 21 years of age.
And as he had become proficient in astronomy and mathematics,
and had gained naval experience in the voyage he had made in
company with his father; and as he knew better than anyone
else his father's views, and also the position of the newly
discovered regions, he may now have well appeared to Henry as
a fit person for the command of another expedition to the
northwest. Two ships, manned with 300 mariners and volunteers,
were ready for him early in the spring of 1498; and he sailed
with them from Bristol, probably in the beginning of the month
of May. We have no certain information regarding his route.
But he appears to have directed his course again to the
country which he had seen the year before on the voyage with
his father, our present Labrador. He sailed along the coast of
this country so far north that, even in the month of July, he
encountered much ice. Observing at the same time, to his great
displeasure, that the coast was trending to the east, he resolved
to give up a further advance to the north, and returned in a
southern direction. At Newfoundland, he probably came to
anchor in some port, and refreshed his men, and refitted his
vessels after their Arctic hardships. ... He probably was the
first fisherman on the banks or shores of Newfoundland, which
through him became famous in Europe. Sailing from Newfoundland
southwest, he kept the coast in view as much as possible, on
his right side, 'always with the intent to find a passage and
open water to India.' ... After having rounded Cape Cod, he
must have felt fresh hope. He saw a coast running to the west,
and open water before him in that direction. It is therefore
nearly certain that he entered somewhat that broad gulf, in
the interior corner of which lies the harbor of New York. ...
From a statement contained in the work of Peter Martyr it
appears ... certain that Cabot landed on some places of the
coast along which he sailed. This author, relating a
conversation which he had with his friend Cabot, on the
subject of his voyage of 1498, says that Cabot told him 'he
had found on most of the places copper or brass among the
aborigines.' ... From another authority we learn that he
captured some of these aborigines and brought them to England,
where they lived and were seen a few years after his return by
the English chronicler, Robert Fabyan. It is not stated at
what place he captured those Indians; but it was not customary
with the navigators of that time to take on board the Indians
until near the time of their leaving the country. Cabot's
Indians, therefore, were probably captured on some shore south
of New York harbor. ... The southern terminus of his voyage is
pretty well ascertained. He himself informed his friend Peter
Martyr, that he went as far south as about the latitude of the
Strait of Gibraltar, that is to say, about 36° North latitude,
which is near that of Cape Hatteras. ... On their return from
their first voyage of 1497, the Cabots believed that they had
discovered portions of Asia and so proclaimed it. But the more
extensive discoveries of the second voyage corrected the views
of Sebastian, and revealed to him nothing but a wild and
barbarous coast, stretching through 30 degrees of latitude,
from 67½° to 36°. The discovery of this impassable barrier
across his passage to Cathay, as he often complained, was a
sore displeasure to him. Instead of the rich possessions of
China, which he hoped to reach, he was arrested by a New found
land, savage and uncultivated. A spirited German author, Dr.
G. M. Asher, in his life of Henry Hudson, published in London
in 1860, observes: 'The displeasure of Cabot involves the
scientific discovery of a new world. He was the first to
recognize that a new and unknown continent was lying, as one
vast barrier, between Western Europe and Eastern Asia.' ...
When Cabot made proposals in the following year, 1499, for
another expedition to the same regions, he was supported
neither by the king nor the merchants. For several years the
scheme for the discovery of a north-western route to Cathay
was not much favored in England. Nevertheless, the voyage of
this gifted and enterprising youth along the entire coast of
the present United States, nay along the whole extent of that
great continent, in which now the English race and language
prevail and flourish, has always been considered as the true
beginning, the foundation and cornerstone, of all the English
claims and possessions in the northern half of America."
J. G. Kohl, History of the Discovery of Maine, chapter 4.
ALSO IN:
R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, chapter 1-10.
J. F. Nicholls, Life of Sebastian Cabot, chapter 5.
AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.
The Third and Fourth Voyages of Columbus.
Discovery of Trinidad, the northern coast of S. America, the
shores of Central America and Panama.
When Columbus reached Spain in June, 1496, "Ferdinand and
Isabella received him kindly, gave him new honors and promised
him other outfits. Enthusiasm, however, had died out and
delays took place. The reports of the returning ships did not
correspond with the pictures of Marco Polo, and the new-found
world was thought to be a very poor India after all. Most
people were of this mind; though Columbus was not
disheartened, and the public treasury was readily opened for a
third voyage. Coronel sailed early in 1498 with two ships, and
Columbus followed with six, embarking at San Lucas on the 30th
of May. He now discovered Trinidad (July 31), which he named
either from its three peaks, or from the Holy Trinity; struck
the northern coast of South America, and skirted what was
later known as the Pearl coast, going as far as the Island of
Margarita. He wondered at the roaring fresh waters which the
Oronoco pours into the Gulf of Pearls, as he called it, and he
half believed that its exuberant tide came from the
terrestrial paradise. He touched the southern coast of Hayti
on the 30th of August. Here already his colonists had
established a fortified post, and founded the town of Santo
Domingo. His brother Bartholomew had ruled energetically
during the Admiral's absence, but he had not prevented a
revolt, which was headed by Roldan. Columbus on his arrival
found the insurgents still defiant, but he was able after a
while to reconcile them, and he even succeeded in attaching
Roldan warmly to his interests.
{55}
Columbus' absence from Spain, however, left his good name
without sponsors; and to satisfy detractors, a new
commissioner was sent over with enlarged powers, even with
authority to supersede Columbus in general command, if
necessary. This emissary was Francisco de Bobadilla, who
arrived at Santo Domingo with two caravels on the 23d of
August, 1500, finding Diego in command, his brother, the
Admiral, being absent. An issue was at once made. Diego
refused to accede to the commissioner's orders till Columbus
returned to judge the case himself; so Bobadilla assumed
charge of the crown property violently, took possession of the
Admiral's house, and when Columbus returned, he with his
brother was arrested and put in irons. In this condition the
prisoners were placed on shipboard, and sailed for Spain. The
captain of the ship offered to remove the manacles: but
Columbus would not permit it, being determined to land in
Spain bound as he was; and so he did. The effect of his
degradation was to his advantage; sovereigns and people were
shocked at the sight; and Ferdinand and Isabella hastened to
make amends by receiving him with renewed favor. It was soon
apparent that everything reasonable would be granted him by
the monarchs, and that he could have all he might wish short
of receiving a new lease of power in the islands, which the
sovereigns were determined to see pacified at least before
Columbus should again assume government of them. The Admiral
had not forgotten his vow to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the
Infidel; but the monarchs did not accede to his wish to
undertake it. Disappointed in this, he proposed a new voyage;
and getting the royal countenance for this scheme, he was
supplied with four vessels of from fifty to seventy tons each.
... He sailed from Cadiz, May 9, 1502, accompanied by his
brother Bartholomew and his son Fernando. The vessels reached
San Domingo June 29. Bobadilla, whose rule of a year and a
half had been an unhappy one, had given place to Nicholas de
Ovando; and the fleet which brought the new governor--with
Maldonado, Las Casas and others--now lay in the harbor waiting
to receive Bobadilla for the return voyage. Columbus had been
instructed to avoid Hispaniola; but now that one of his
vessels leaked, and he needed to make repairs, he sent a boat
ashore, asking permission to enter the harbor. He was refused,
though a storm was impending. He sheltered his vessels as best
he could, and rode out the gale. The fleet which had on board
Bobadilla and Roldan, with their ill-gotten gains, was
wrecked, and these enemies of Columbus were drowned. The
Admiral found a small harbor where he could make his repairs;
and then, July 14, sailed westward to find, as he supposed,
the richer portions of India. ... A landing was made on the
coast of Honduras, August 14. Three days later the explorers
landed again fifteen leagues farther east, and took possession
of the country for Spain. Still east they went; and, in
gratitude for safety after a long storm, they named a cape
which they rounded, Gracias à Dios--a name still preserved at
the point where the coast of Honduras begins to trend
southward. Columbus was now lying ill on his bed, placed on
deck, and was half the time in revery. Still the vessels
coasted south," along and beyond the shores of Costa Rica;
then turned with the bend of the coast to the northeast, until
they reached Porto Bello, as we call it, where they found
houses and orchards, and passed on "to the farthest spot of
Bastidas' exploring, who had, in 1501, sailed westward along
the northern coast of South America." There turning back,
Columbus attempted to found a colony at Veragua, on the Costa
Rica coast, where signs of gold were tempting. But the gold
proved scanty, the natives hostile, and, the Admiral,
withdrawing his colony, sailed away. "He abandoned one
worm-eaten caravel at Porto Bello, and, reaching Jamaica,
beached two others. A year of disappointment, grief, and want
followed. Columbus clung to his wrecked vessels. His crew
alternately mutinied at his side, and roved about the island.
Ovando, at Hispaniola, heard of his straits, but only tardily
and scantily relieved him. The discontented were finally
humbled; and some ships, despatched by the Admiral's agent in
Santo Domingo, at last reached him and brought him and his
companions to that place, where Ovando received him with
ostentatious kindness, lodging him in his house till Columbus
departed for Spain, Sept. 12, 1504." Arriving in Spain in
November, disheartened, broken with disease, neglected, it was
not until the following May that he had strength enough to go
to the court at Segovia, and then only to be coldly received
by King Ferdinand--Isabella being dead. "While still hope was
deferred, the infirmities of age and a life of hardships
brought Columbus to his end; and on Ascension Day, the 20th of
May, 1506, he died, with his son Diego and a few devoted
friends by his bedside."
J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 2, chapter 1.
ALSO IN:
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 2 and 4.
W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus,
book 10-18 (volume 2).
AMERICA: A. D. 1499-1500.
The Voyages and Discoveries of Ojeda and Pinzon.
The Second Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci.
One of the most daring and resolute of the adventurers who
accompanied Columbus on his second voyage (in 1493) was Alonzo
de Ojeda. Ojeda quarrelled with the Admiral and returned to
Spain in 1498. Soon afterwards, "he was provided by the Bishop
Fonseca, Columbus' enemy, with a fragment of the map which the
Admiral had sent to Ferdinand and Isabella, showing the
discoveries which he had made in his last voyage. With this
assistance Ojeda set sail for South America, accompanied by
the pilot, Juan de la Cosá, who had accompanied Columbus in
his first great voyage in 1492, and of whom Columbus
complained that, 'being a clever man, he went about saying
that he knew more than he did,' and also by Amerigo Vespucci.
They set sail on the 20th of May, 1499, with four vessels, and
after a passage of 27 days came in sight of the continent, 200
leagues east of the Oronoco. At the end of June, they landed
on the shores of Surinam, in six degrees of north latitude,
and proceeding west saw the mouths of the Essequibo and
Oronoco. Passing the Boca del Drago of Trinidad, they coasted
westward till they reached the Capo de la Vela in Granada. It
was in this voyage that was discovered the Gulf to which Ojeda
gave the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice, on account of
the cabins built on piles over the water, a mode of life which
brought to his mind the water-city of the Adriatic.
{56}
From the American coast Ojeda went to the Caribbee Islands,
and on the 5th of September reached Yaguimo, in Hispaniola,
where he raised a revolt against the authority of Columbus.
His plans, however, were frustrated by Roldan and Escobar, the
delegates of Columbus, and he was compelled to withdraw from
the island. On the 5th of February, 1500, he returned,
carrying with him to Cadiz an extraordinary number of slaves,
from which he realized an enormous sum of money. At the
beginning of December, 1499, the same year in which Ojeda set
sail on his last voyage, another companion of Columbus, in his
first voyage, Vicente Yañez Pinzon, sailed from Palos, was the
first to cross the line on the American side of the Atlantic.
and on the 20th of January, 1500, discovered Cape St.
Augustine, to which he gave the name of Cabo Santa Maria de la
Consolacion, whence returning northward he followed the
westerly trending coast, and so discovered the mouth of the
Amazon, which he named Paricura. Within a month after his
departure from Palos, he was followed from the same port and
on the same route by Diego de Lepe, who was the first to
discover, at the mouth of the Oronoco, by means of a closed
vessel, which only opened when it reached the bottom of the
water, that, at a depth of eight fathoms and a half, the two
lowest fathoms were salt water, but all above was fresh. Lepe
also made the observation that beyond Cape St. Augustine,
which he doubled, as well as Pinzon, the coast of Brazil
trended south-west."
R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, chapter 19.
ALSO IN:
W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus, volume 3, chapter 1-3.
AMERICA: A. D. 1500.
Voyages of the Cortereals to the far North, and of Bastidas to
the Isthmus of Darien.
"The Portuguese did not overlook the north while making their
important discoveries to the south. Two vessels, probably in
the spring of 1500, were sent out under Gaspar Cortereal. No
journal or chart of the voyage is now in existence, hence
little is known of its object or results. Still more dim is a
previous voyage ascribed by Cordeiro to João Vaz Cortereal,
father of Gaspar. ... Touching at the Azores, Gaspar
Cortereal, possibly following Cabot's charts, struck the coast
of Newfoundland north of Cape Race, and sailing north
discovered a land which he called Terra Verde, perhaps
Greenland, but was stopped by ice at a river which he named
Rio Nevado, whose location is unknown. Cortereal returned to
Lisbon before the end of 1500. ... In October of this same
year Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed from Cadiz with two vessels.
Touching the shores of South America near Isla Verde, which
lies between Guadalupe and the main land, he followed the
coast westward to El Retrete, or perhaps Nombre de Dios, on
the Isthmus of Darien, in about 9° 30' North latitude.
Returning he was wrecked on Española toward the end of 1501,
and reached Cadiz in September, 1502. This being the first
authentic voyage by Europeans to the territory herein defined
as the Pacific States, such incidents as are known will be
given hereafter."
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 1,
page 113.
"We have Las Casas's authority for saying that Bastidas was a
humane man toward the Indians. Indeed, he afterwards lost his
life by this humanity; for, when governor of Santa Martha, not
consenting to harass the Indians, he so alienated his men that
a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was murdered in
his bed. The renowned Vasco Nuñez [de Balboa] was in this
expedition, and the knowledge he gained there had the greatest
influence on the fortunes of his varied and eventful life."
Sir A. Helps, Spanish Conquest in America,
book 5, chapter 1.
ALSO IN:
J. G. Kohl, History of the Discovery of Maine, chapter 5.
R. Biddle, Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, book 2, chapters 3-5.
See, also, NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1501-1578.
AMERICA: A. D. 1500-1514.
Voyage of Cabral.
The Third Voyage of Americus Vespucius.
Exploration of the Brazilian coast for the King of Portugal.
Curious evolution of the continental name "America."
"Affairs now became curiously complicated. King Emanuel of
Portugal intrusted to Pedro Alvarez de Cabral the command of a
fleet for Hindustan, to follow up the work of Gama and
establish a Portuguese centre of trade on the Malabar coast.
This fleet of 13 vessels, carrying about 1,200 men, sailed
from Lisbon March 9, 1500. After passing the Cape Verde
Islands, March 22, for some reason not clearly known, whether
driven by stormy weather or seeking to avoid the calms that
were apt to be troublesome on the Guinea coast, Cabral took a
somewhat more westerly course than he realized, and on April
22, after a weary progress averaging less than 60 miles per
day, he found himself on the coast of Brazil not far beyond
the limit reached by Lepe. ... Approaching it in such a way
Cabral felt sure that this coast must fall to the east of the
papal meridian. Accordingly on May day, at Porto Seguro in
latitude 16° 30' South, he took formal possession of the country
for Portugal, and sent Gaspar de Lemos in one of his ships
back to Lisbon with the news. On May 22 Cabral weighed anchor
and stood for the Cape of Good Hope. ... Cabral called the
land he had found Vera Cruz, a name which presently became
Santa Cruz; but when Lemos arrived in Lisbon with the news he
had with him some gorgeous paroquets, and among the earliest
names on old maps of the Brazilian coast we find 'Land of
Paroquets' and 'Land of the Holy Cross.' The land lay
obviously so far to the east that Spain could not deny that at
last there was something for Portugal out in the 'ocean sea.'
Much interest was felt at Lisbon. King Emanuel began to
prepare an expedition for exploring this new coast, and wished
to secure the services of some eminent pilot and cosmographer
familiar with the western waters. Overtures were made to
Americus, a fact which proves that he had already won a high
reputation. The overtures were accepted, for what reason we do
not know, and soon after his return from the voyage with
Ojeda, probably in the autumn of 1500, Americus passed from
the service of Spain into that of Portugal. ... On May 14,
1501, Vespucius, who was evidently principal pilot and guiding
spirit in this voyage under unknown skies, set sail from
Lisbon with three caravels. It is not quite clear who was
chief captain, but M. Varnhagen has found reasons for
believing that it was a certain Don Nuno Manuel. The first
halt was made on the African coast at Cape Verde, the first
week in June. ... After 67 days of 'the vilest weather ever
seen by man' they reached the coast of Brazil in latitude
about 5° South, on the evening of the 16th of August, the
festival-day of San Roque, whose name was accordingly given to
the cape before which they dropped anchor.
{57}
From this point they slowly followed the coast to the
southward, stopping now and then to examine the country. ...
It was not until All Saints day, the first of November, that
they reached the bay in latitude 13° South, which is still known
by the name which they gave it, Bahia de Todos Santos. On New
Year's day, 1502, they arrived at the noble bay where 54 years
later the chief city of Brazil was founded. They would seem to
have mistaken it for the mouth of another huge river, like
some that had already been seen in this strange world; for
they called it Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Thence by
February 15 they had passed Cape Santa Maria, when they left
the coast and took a southeasterly course out into the ocean.
Americus gives no satisfactory reason for this change of
direction. ... Perhaps he may have looked into the mouth of
the river La Plata, which is a bay more than a hundred miles
wide; and the sudden westward trend of the shore may have led
him to suppose that he had reached the end of the continent.
At any rate, he was now in longitude more than twenty degrees
west of the meridian of Cape San Roque, and therefore
unquestionably out of Portuguese waters. Clearly there was no
use in going on and discovering lands which could belong only
to Spain. This may account, I think, for the change of
direction." The voyage southeastwardly was pursued until the
little fleet had reached the icy and rocky coast of the island
of South Georgia, in latitude 54° South. It was then decided to
turn homeward. "Vespucius ... headed straight North North East
through the huge ocean, for Sierra Leone, and the distance of
more than 4,000 miles was made--with wonderful accuracy,
though Vespucius says nothing about that--in 33 days. ...
Thence, after some further delay, to Lisbon, where they
arrived on the 7th of September, 1502. ... Among all the
voyages made during that eventful period there was none that
as a feat of navigation surpassed this third of Vespucius, and
there was none, except the first of Columbus, that outranked
it in historical importance. For it was not only a voyage into
the remotest stretches of the Sea of Darkness, but it was
preeminently an incursion into the antipodal world of the
Southern hemisphere. ... A coast of continental extent,
beginning so near the meridian of the Cape Verde islands and
running southwesterly to latitude 35° South and perhaps beyond,
did not fit into anybody's scheme of things. ... It was land
unknown to the ancients, and Vespucius was right in saying
that he had beheld there things by the thousand which Pliny
had never mentioned. It was not strange that he should call it
a 'New World,' and in meeting with this phrase, on this first
occasion in which it appears in any document with reference to
any part of what we now call America, the reader must be
careful not to clothe it with the meaning which it wears in
our modern eyes. In using the expression 'New World' Vespucius
was not thinking of the Florida coast which he had visited on
a former voyage, nor of the 'islands of India' discovered by
Columbus, nor even of the Pearl Coast which he had followed
after the Admiral in exploring. The expression occurs in his
letter to Lorenzo de' Medici, written from Lisbon in March or
April, 1503, relating solely to this third voyage. The letter
begins as follows: 'I have formerly written to you at
sufficient length about my return from those new countries
which in the ships and at the expense and command of the most
gracious King of Portugal we have sought and found. It is
proper to call them a new world.' Observe that it is only the
new countries visited on this third voyage, the countries from
Cape San Roque southward, that Vespucius thinks it proper to
call a new world, and here is his reason for so calling them:
'Since among our ancestors there was no knowledge of them, and
to all who hear of the affair it is most novel. For it
transcends the ideas of the ancients, since most of them say
that beyond the equator to the south there is no continent,
but only the sea which they called the Atlantic, and if any of
them asserted the existence of a continent there, they found
many reasons for refusing to consider it a habitable country.
But this last voyage of mine has proved that this opinion of
theirs was erroneous and in every way contrary to the facts."
... This expression 'Novus Mundus,' thus occurring in a
private letter, had a remarkable career. Early in June, 1503,
about the time when Americus was starting on his fourth
voyage, Lorenzo died. By the beginning of 1504, a Latin
version of the letter [translated by Giovanni Giocondo] was
printed and published, with the title 'Mundus Novus.' ... The
little four-leaved tract, 'Mundus Novus,' turned out to be the
great literary success of the day. M. Harisse has described at
least eleven Latin editions probably published in the course
of 1504, and by 1506 not less than eight editions of German
versions had been issued. Intense curiosity was aroused by
this announcement of the existence of a populous land beyond
the equator and unknown (could such a thing be possible) to
the ancients,--who did know something, at least, about the
eastern parts of the Asiatic continent which Columbus was
supposed to have reached. The "Novus Mundus," so named, began
soon to be represented on maps and globes, generally as a
great island or quasi-continent lying on and below the
equator. "Europe, Asia and Africa were the three parts of the
earth [previously known], and so this opposite region,
hitherto unknown, but mentioned by Mela and indicated by
Ptolemy, was the Fourth Part. We can now begin to understand
the intense and wildly absorbing interest with which people
read the brief story of the third voyage of Vespucius, and we
can see that in the nature of that interest there was nothing
calculated to bring it into comparison with the work of
Columbus. The two navigators were not regarded as rivals in
doing the same thing, but as men who had done two very
different things; and to give credit to one was by no means
equivalent to withholding credit from the other." In 1507,
Martin Waldseemüller, professor of geography at Saint-Dié,
published a small treatise entitled "Cosmographic
Introductio," with that second of the two known letters of
Vespucius--the one addressed to Soderini, of which an account
is given above (A. D. 1497-1498)--appended to it. "In this
rare book occurs the first suggestion of the name America.
{58}
After having treated of the division of the earth's inhabited
surface into three parts--Europe, Asia, and
Africa--Waldseemüller speaks of the discovery of a Fourth
Part," and says: "'Wherefore I do not see what is rightly to
hinder us from calling it Amerige or America, i. e., the land
of Americus, after its discoverer Americus, a man of sagacious
mind, since both Europe and Asia have got their names from
women.' ... Such were the winged words but for which, as M.
Harisse reminds us, the western hemisphere might have come to
be known as Atlantis, or Hesperides, or Santa Cruz, or New
India, or perhaps Columbia. ... In about a quarter of a
century the first stage in the development of the naming of
America had been completed. That stage consisted of five
distinct steps: 1. Americus called the regions visited by him
beyond the equator 'a new world' because they were unknown to
the ancients; 2. Giocondo made this striking phrase 'Mundus
Novus' into a title for his translation of the letter. ... 3.
the name Mundus Novus got placed upon several maps as an
equivalent for Terra Sanctæ Crucis, or what we call Brazil; 4.
the suggestion was made that Mundus Novus was the Fourth Part
of the earth, and might properly be named America after its
discoverer; 5. the name America thus got placed upon several
maps [the first, so far as known, being a map ascribed to
Leonardo da Vinci and published about 1514, and the second a
globe made in 1515 by Johann Schöner, at Nuremberg] as an
equivalent for what we call Brazil, and sometimes came to
stand alone as an equivalent for what we call South America,
but still signified only a part of the dry land beyond the
Atlantic to which Columbus had led the way. ... This wider
meaning [of South America] became all the more firmly
established as its narrower meaning was usurped by the name
Brazil. Three centuries before the time of Columbus the red
dye-wood called brazil-wood was an article of commerce, under
that same name, in Italy and Spain. It was one of the valuable
things brought from the East, and when the Portuguese found
the same dye-wood abundant in those tropical forests that had
seemed so beautiful to Vespucius, the name Brazil soon became
fastened upon the country and helped to set free the name
America from its local associations." When, in time, and by
slow degrees, the great fact was learned, that all the lands
found beyond the Atlantic by Columbus and his successors,
formed part of one continental system, and were all to be
embraced in the conception of a New World, the name which had
become synonymous with New World was then naturally extended
to the whole. The evolutionary process of the naming of the
western hemisphere as a whole was thus made complete in 1541,
by Mercator, who spread the name America in large letters upon
a globe which he constructed that year, so that part of it
appeared upon the northern and part upon the southern
continent.
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 7 (volume 2).
ALSO IN:
W. B. Scaife, America: Its Geographical History,
section 4.
R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry of Portugal,
chapter 19.
J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America,
volume 2, ch, 2, notes.
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 1, pages
99-112, and 123-125.
AMERICA: A. D. 1501-1504.
Portuguese, Norman and Breton fishermen on the Newfoundland
Banks.
See NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1501-1578.
AMERICA: A. D. 1502..
The Second Voyage of Ojeda.
The first voyage of Alonzo de Ojeda, from which he returned to
Spain in June 1500, was profitable to nothing but his
reputation as a bold and enterprising explorer. By way of
reward, he was given "a grant of land in Hispaniola, and
likewise the government of Coquibacoa, which place he had
discovered [and which he had called Venezuela]. He was
authorized to fit out a number of ships at his own expense and
to prosecute discoveries on the coast of Terra Firma. ... With
four vessels, Ojeda set sail for the Canaries, in 1502, and
thence proceeded to the Gulf of Paria, from which locality he
found his way to Coquibacoa. Not liking this poor country, he
sailed on to the Bay of Honda, where he determined to found
his settlement, which was, however, destined to be of short
duration. Provisions very soon became scarce; and one of his
partners, who had been sent to procure supplies from Jamaica,
failed to return until Ojeda's followers were almost in a
state of mutiny. The result was that the whole colony set sail
for Hispaniola, taking the governor with them in chains. All
that Ojeda gained by his expedition was that he at length came
off winner in a lawsuit, the costs of which, however, left him
a ruined man."
R G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese South America,
book 1, chapter 1.
AMERICA: A. D. 1503-1504.
The Fourth Voyage of Americus Vespucius.
First Settlement in Brazil.
In June, 1503, "Amerigo sailed again from Lisbon, with six
ships. The object of this voyage was to discover a certain
island called Melcha, which was supposed to lie west of
Calicut, and to be as famous a mart in the commerce of the
Indian world as Cadiz was in Europe. They made the Cape de
Verds, and then, contrary to the judgment of Vespucci and of
all the fleet, the Commander persisted in standing for Serra
Leoa." The Commander's ship was lost, and Vespucci, with one
vessel, only, reached the coast of the New World, finding a
port which is thought to have been Bahia. Here "they waited
above two months in vain expectation of being joined by the
rest of the squadron. Having lost all hope of this they
coasted on for 260 leagues to the Southward, and there took
port again in 18° S. 35° West of the meridian of Lisbon. Here
they remained five months, upon good terms with the natives,
with whom some of the party penetrated forty leagues into the
interior; and here they erected a fort, in which they left 24
men who had been saved from the Commander's ship. They gave
them 12 guns, besides other arms, and provisions for six
months; then loaded with brazil [wood], sailed homeward and
returned in safety. ... The honour, therefore, of having
formed the first settlement in this country is due to Amerigo
Vespucci. It does not appear that any further attention was as
this time paid to it. ... But the cargo of brazil which
Vespucci had brought home tempted private adventurers, who
were content with peaceful gains, to trade thither for that
valuable wood; and this trade became so well known, that in
consequence the coast and the whole country obtained the name
of Brazil, notwithstanding the holier appellation [Santa Cruz]
which Cabral had given it."
R. Southey, History of Brazil, volume 1, chapter 1.
{59}
AMERICA: A. D. 1509-1511.
The Expeditions of Ojeda and Nicuesa to the Isthmus.
The Settlement at Darien.
"For several years after his ruinous, though successful
lawsuit, we lose all traces of Alonzo de Ojeda, excepting that
we are told he made another voyage to Coquibacoa [Venezuela],
in 1505. No record remains of this expedition, which seems to
have been equally unprofitable with the preceding, for we find
him, in 1508, in the island of Hispaniola as poor in purse,
though as proud in spirit, as ever. ... About this time the
cupidity of King Ferdinand was greatly excited by the accounts
by Columbus of the gold mines of Veragua, in which the admiral
fancied he had discovered the Aurea Chersonesus of the
ancients, whence King Solomon procured the gold used in
building the temple of Jerusalem. Subsequent voyagers had
corroborated the opinion of Columbus as to the general riches
of the coast of Terra Firma; King Ferdinand resolved,
therefore, to found regular colonies along that coast, and to
place the whole under some capable commander." Ojeda was
recommended for this post, but found a competitor in one of
the gentlemen of the Spanish court, Diego de Nicuesa. "King
Ferdinand avoided the dilemma by favoring both; not indeed by
furnishing them with ships and money, but by granting patents
and dignities, which cost nothing, and might bring rich
returns. He divided that part of the continent which lies
along the Isthmus of Darien into two provinces, the boundary
line running through the Gulf of Uraba. The eastern part,
extending to Cape de la Vela, was called New Andalusia, and
the government of it given to Ojeda. The other to the west
[called Castilla del Oro], including Veragua, and reaching, to
Cape Gracias à Dios, was assigned to Nicuesa. The island of
Jamaica was given to the two governors in common, as a place
whence to draw supplies of provisions." Slender means for the
equipment of Ojeda's expedition were supplied by the veteran
pilot, Juan de la Cosa, who accompanied him as his lieutenant.
Nicuesa was more amply provided. The rival armaments arrived
at San Domingo about the same time (in 1509), and much
quarreling between the two commanders ensued. Ojeda found a
notary in San Domingo, Martin Fernandez de Enciso, who had
money which he consented to invest in the enterprise, and who
promised to follow him with an additional ship-load of
recruits and supplies. Under this arrangement Ojeda made ready
to sail in advance of his competitor, embarking November 10, 1509.
Among those who sailed with him was Francisco Pizarro, the
future conqueror of Peru. Ojeda, by his energy, gained time
enough to nearly ruin his expedition before Nicuesa reached
the scene; for, having landed at Carthagena, he made war upon
the natives, pursued them recklessly into the interior of the
country, with 70 men, and was overwhelmed by the desperate
savages, escaping with only one companion from their poisoned
arrows. His faithful friend, the pilot, Juan de la Cosa, was
among the slain, and Ojeda himself, hiding in the forest, was
nearly dead of hunger and exposure when found and rescued by a
searching party from his ships. At this juncture the fleet of
Nicuesa made its appearance. Jealousies were forgotten in a
common rage against the natives and the two expeditions were
joined in an attack on the Indian villages which spared
nothing. Nicuesa then proceeded to Veragua, while Ojeda
founded a town, which he called San Sebastian, at the east end
of the Gulf of Uraba. Incessantly harassed by the natives,
terrified by the effects of the poison which these used in
their warfare, and threatened with starvation by the rapid
exhaustion of its supplies, the settlement lost courage and
hope. Enciso and his promised ship were waited for in vain. At
length there came a vessel which certain piratical adventurers
at Hispaniola had stolen, and which brought some welcome
provisions, eagerly bought at an exorbitant price. Ojeda, half
recovered from a poisoned wound, which he had treated
heroically with red-hot plates of iron, engaged the pirates to
convey him to Hispaniola, for the procuring of supplies. The
voyage was a disastrous one, resulting in shipwreck on the
coast of Cuba and a month of desperate wandering in the
morasses of the island. Ojeda survived all these perils and
sufferings, made his way to Jamaica, and from Jamaica to San
Domingo, found that his partner Enciso had sailed for the
colony long before, with abundant supplies, but could learn
nothing more. Nor could he obtain for himself any means of
returning to San Sebastian, or of dispatching relief to the
place. Sick, penniless and disheartened, he went into a
convent and died. Meantime the despairing colonists at San
Sebastian waited until death had made them few enough to be
all taken on board of the two little brigantines which were
left to them; then they sailed away, Pizarro in command. One
of the brigantines soon went down in a squall; the other made
its way to the harbor of Carthagena, where it found the tardy
Enciso, searching for his colony. Enciso, under his
commission, now took command, and insisted upon going to San
Sebastian. There the old experiences were soon renewed, and
even Enciso was ready to abandon the deadly place. The latter
had brought with him a needy cavalier, Vasco Nuñez de
Balboa--so needy that he smuggled himself on board Enciso's
ship in a cask to escape his creditors. Vasco Nuñez, who had
coasted this region with Bastidas, in 1500, now advised a
removal of the colony to Darien, on the opposite coast of the
Gulf of Uraba. His advice, which was followed, proved good,
and the hopes of the settlers were raised; but Enciso's modes
of government proved irksome to them. Then Balboa called
attention to the fact that, when they crossed the Gulf of
Uraba, they passed out of the territory covered by the patent
to Ojeda, under which Enciso was commissioned, and into that
granted to Nicuesa. On this suggestion Enciso was promptly
deposed and two alcaldes were elected, Balboa being one. While
events in one corner of Nicuesa's domain were thus
establishing a colony for that ambitious governor, he himself,
at the other extremity of it, was faring badly. He had
suffered hardships, separation from most of his command and
long abandonment on a dc solate coast; had rejoined his
followers after great suffering, only to suffer yet more in
their company, until less than one hundred remained of the 700
who sailed with him a few months before. The settlement at
Veragua had been deserted, and another, named Nombre de Dios
undertaken, with no improvement of circumstances. In this
situation he was rejoiced, at last, by the arrival of one of
his lieutenants, Rodrigo de Colmenares, who came with
supplies. Colmenares brought tidings, moreover, of the
prosperous colony at Darien, which he had discovered on his
way, with an invitation to Nicuesa to come and assume the
government of it. He accepted the invitation with delight;
but, alas! the community at Darien had repented of it before
he reached them, and they refused to receive him when he
arrived. Permitted finally to land, he was seized by a
treacherous party among the colonists--to whom Balboa is said
to have opposed all the resistance in his power--was put on
board of an old and crazy brigantine, with seventeen of his
friends, and compelled to take an oath that he would sail
straight to Spain. "The frail bark set sail on the first of
March, 1511, and steered across the Caribbean Sea for the
island of Hispaniola, but was never seen or heard of more."
W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus and his
Companions, volume 3.
ALSO IN
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 6.
{60}
AMERICA: A. D. 1511.
The Spanish conquest and occupation of Cuba.
See CUBA: A. D. 1511.
AMERICA: A. D. 1512.
The Voyage of Ponce de Leon in quest of the Fountain of Youth,
and his Discovery of Florida.
"Whatever may have been the Southernmost point reached by
Cabot in coasting America on his return, it is certain that he
did not land in Florida, and that the honour of first
exploring that country is due to Juan Ponce de Leon. This
cavalier, who was governor of Puerto Rico, induced by the
vague traditions circulated by the natives of the West Indies,
that there was a country in the north possessing a fountain
whose waters restored the aged to youth, made it an object of
his ambition to be the first to discover this marvellous
region. With this view, he resigned the governorship, and set
sail with three caravels on the 3d of March 1512. Steering N.
¼ N., he came upon a country covered with flowers and verdure;
and as the day of his discovery happened to be Palm Sunday,
called by the Spaniards' Pasqua Florida,' he gave it the name
of Florida from this circumstance. He landed on the 2d of
April, and took possession of the country in the name of the
king of Castile. The warlike people of the coast of Cautio (a
name given by the Indians to all the country lying between
Cape Cañaveral and the southern point of Florida) soon,
however, compelled him to retreat, and he pursued his
exploration of the coast as far as 30° 8' North latitude, and
on the 8th of May doubled Cape Cañaveral. Then retracing his
course to Puerto Rico, in the hope of finding the island of
Bimini, which he believed to be the Land of Youth, and
described by the Indians as opposite to Florida, he discovered
the Bahamas, and some other islands, previously unknown. Bad
weather compelling him to put into the isle of Guanima to
repair damages, he despatched one of his caravels, under the
orders of Jaun Perez de Ortubia and of the pilot Anton de
Alaminos, to gain information respecting the desired land,
which he had as yet been totally unable to discover. He
returned to Puerto Rico on the 21st of September; a few days
afterwards, Ortubia arrived also with news of Bimini. He
reported that he had explored the island,--which he described
as large, well wooded, and watered by numerous streams,--but
he had failed in discovering the fountain. Oviedo places
Bimini at 40 leagues west of the island of Bahama. Thus all
the advantages which Ponce de Leon promised himself from this
voyage turned to the profit of geography: the title of
'Adelantado of Bimini and Florida,' which was conferred upon
him, was purely honorary; but the route taken by him in order
to return to Puerto Rico, showed the advantage of making the
homeward voyage to Spain by the Bahama Channel."
W. B. Rye, Introduction to "Discovery and Conquest of
Terra Florida, by a gentleman of Elvas" (Hakluyt Society,
1851).
ALSO IN G. R. Fairbanks, History of Florida, chapter 1
AMERICA: A. D. 1513-1517.
The discovery of the Pacific by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.
Pedrarias Davila on the Isthmus.
With Enciso deposed from authority and Nicuesa sent adrift,
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa seems to have easily held the lead in
affairs at Darien, though not without much opposition; for
faction and turbulence were rife. Enciso was permitted to
carry his grievances and complaints to Spain, but Balboa's
colleague, Zamudio, went with him, and another comrade
proceeded to Hispaniola, both of them well-furnished with
gold. For the quest of gold had succeeded at last. The Darien
adventurers had found considerable quantities in the
possession of the surrounding natives, and were gathering it
with greedy hands. Balboa had the prudence to establish
friendly relations with one of the most important of the
neighboring caciques, whose comely daughter he
wedded--according to the easy customs of the country--and
whose ally he became in wars with the other caciques. By gift
and tribute, therefore as well as by plunder, he harvested
more gold than any before him had found since the ransacking
of the New World began. But what they obtained seemed little
compared with the treasures reported to them as existing
beyond the near mountains and toward the south. One Indian
youth, son of a friendly cacique, particularly excited their
imaginations by the tale which he told of another great sea,
not far to the west, on the southward-stretching shores of
which were countries that teemed with every kind of wealth. He
told them, however, that they would need a thousand men to
fight their way to this Sea. Balboa gave such credence to the
story that he sent envoys to Spain to solicit forces from the
king for an adequate expedition across the mountains. They
sailed in October, 1512, but did not arrive in Spain until the
following May. They found Balboa in much disfavor at the
court. Enciso and the friends of the unfortunate Nicuesa had
unitedly ruined him by their complaints, and the king had
caused criminal proceedings against him to be commenced.
Meantime, some inkling of these hostilities had reached
Balboa, himself, conveyed by a vessel which bore to him, at
the same time, a commission as captain-general from the
authorities in Hispaniola. He now resolved to become the
discoverer of the ocean which his Indian friends described,
and of the rich lands bordering it, before his enemies could
interfere with him. "Accordingly, early in September, 1513, he
set out on his renowned expedition for finding 'the other
sea,' accompanied by 190 men well armed, and by dogs, which
were of more avail than men, and by Indian slaves to carry the
burdens. He went by sea to the territory of his father-in-law,
King Careta, by whom he was well received, and accompanied by
whose Indians he moved on into Poncha's territory." Quieting
the fears of this cacique, he passed his country without
fighting. The next chief encountered, named Quarequa,
attempted resistance, but was routed, with a great slaughter
of his people, and Balboa pushed on. "On the 25th of
September, 1513, he came near to the top of a mountain from
whence the South Sea was visible.
{61}
The distance from Poncha's chief town to this point was forty
leagues, reckoned then six days' journey; but Vasco Nuñez and
his men took twenty-five days to accomplish it, as they
suffered much from the roughness of the ways and from the want
of provisions. A little before Vasco Nuñez reached the height,
Quarequa's Indians informed him of his near approach to the
sea. It was a sight in beholding which, for the first time,
any man would wish to be alone. Vasco Nuñez bade his men sit
down while he ascended, and then, in solitude, looked down
upon the vast Pacific--the first man of the Old World, so far
as we know, who had done so. Falling on his knees, he gave
thanks to God for the favour shown to him in his being
permitted to discover the Sea of the South. Then with his hand
be beckoned to his men to come up. When they had come, both he
and they knelt down and poured forth their thanks to God. He
then addressed them. ... Having ... addressed his men, Vasco
Nuñez proceeded to take formal possession, on behalf of the
kings of Castile, of the sea and of all that was in it; and in
order to make memorials of the event, he cut down trees,
formed crosses, and heaped up stones. He also inscribed the
names of the monarchs of Castile upon great trees in the
vicinity." Afterwards, when he had descended the western slope
and found the shore, "he entered the sea up to his thighs,
having his sword on, and with his shield in his hand; then he
called the by-standers to witness how he touched with his
person and took possession of this sea for the kings of
Castile, and declared that he would defend the possession of
it against all comers. After this, Vasco Nuñez made friends in
the usual manner, first conquering and then negotiating with"
the several chiefs or caciques whose territories came in his
way. He explored the Gulf of San Miguel, finding much wealth
of pearls in the region, and returned to Darien by a route
which crossed the isthmus considerably farther to the north,
reaching his colony on the 29th of January, 1514, having been
absent nearly five months. "His men at Darien received him
with exultation, and he lost no time in sending his news,
'such signal and new news,' ... to the King of Spain,
accompanying it with rich presents. His letter, which gave a
detailed account of his journey, and which, for its length,
was compared by Peter Martyr to the celebrated letter that
came to the senate from Tiberius, contained in every page
thanks to God that he had escaped from such great dangers and
labours. Both the letter and the presents were intrusted to a
man named Arbolanche, who departed from Darien about the
beginning of March, 1514. ... Vasco Nuñez's messenger,
Arbolanche, reached the court of Spain too late for his
master's interests." The latter had already been superseded in
the Governorship, and his successor was on the way to take his
authority from him. The new governor was one Pedrarias De
Avila, or Davila, as the name is sometimes written;--an
envious and malignant old man, under whose rule on the isthmus
the destructive energy of Spanish conquest rose to its meanest
and most heartless and brainless development. Conspicuously
exposed as he was to the jealousy and hatred of Pedrarias,
Vasco Nuñez was probably doomed to ruin, in some form, from
the first. At one time, in 1516, there seemed to be a promise
for him of alliance with his all-powerful enemy, by a marriage
with one of the governor's daughters, and he received the
command of an expedition which again crossed the isthmus,
carrying ships, and began the exploration of the Pacific. But
circumstances soon arose which gave Pedrarias all opportunity
to accuse the explorer of treasonable designs and to
accomplish his arrest--Francisco Pizarro being the officer
fitly charged with the execution of the governor's warrant.
Brought in chains to Acla, Vasco Nuñez was summarily tried,
found guilty and led forth to swift death, laying his head
upon the block (A. D. 1517). "Thus perished Vasco Nuñez de
Balboa, in the forty-second year of his age, the man who,
since the time of Columbus, had shown the most statesmanlike
and warriorlike powers in that part of the world, but whose
career only too much resembles that of Ojeda, Nicuesa, and the
other unfortunate commanders who devastated those beautiful
regions of the earth."
Sir A. Helps, Spanish Conquest in America,
book 6 (volume 1).
"If I have applied strong terms of denunciation to Pedrarias
Dávila, it is because he unquestionably deserves it. He is by
far the worst man who came officially to the New World during
its early government. In this all authorities agree. And all
agree that Vasco Nuñez was not deserving of death."
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 8-12 (foot-note, page 458).
ALSO IN
W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus and His
Companions, volume 3.
AMERICA: A. D. 1515.
Discovery of La Plata by Juan de Solis.
See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1515-1557.
AMERICA: A. D. 1517-1518.
The Spaniards find Mexico.
"An hidalgo of Cuba, named Hernandez de Cordova, sailed with
three vessels on an expedition to one of the neighbouring
Bahama Islands, in quest of Indian slaves (February 8, 1517). He
encountered a succession of heavy gales which drove him far
out of his course, and at the end of three weeks he found
himself on a strange and unknown coast. On landing and asking
the name of the country, he was answered by the natives
'Tectelan,' meaning 'I do not understand you,' but which the
Spaniards, misinterpreting into the name of the place, easily
corrupted into Yucatan. Some writers give a different
etymology. ... Bernal Diaz says the word came from the
vegetable 'yuca' and 'tale,' the name for a hillock in which
it is planted. ... M. Waldeck finds a much more plausible
derivation in the Indian word 'Ouyouckatan,' 'listen to what
they say.' ... Cordova had landed on the north-eastern end of
the peninsula, at Cape Catoche. He was astonished at the size
and solid materials of the buildings constructed of stone and
lime, so different from the frail tenements of reeds and
rushes which formed the habitations of the islanders. He was
struck, also, with the higher cultivation of the soil, and
with the delicate texture of the cotton garments and gold
ornaments of the natives. Everything indicated a civilization
far superior to anything he had before witnessed in the New
World. He saw the evidence of a different race, moreover, in
the warlike spirit of the people. ... Wherever they landed
they were met with the most deadly hostility.
{62}
Cordova himself, in one of his skirmishes with the Indians,
received more than a dozen wounds, and one only of his party
escaped unhurt. At length, when he had coasted the peninsula
as far as Campeachy, he returned to Cuba, which he reached
after an absence of several months. ... The reports he had
brought back of the country, and, still more, the specimens of
curiously wrought gold, convinced Velasquez [governor of Cuba]
of the importance of this discovery, and he prepared with all
despatch to avail himself of it. He accordingly fitted out a
little squadron of four vessels for the newly discovered
lands, and placed it under the command of his nephew, Juan de
Grijalva, a man on whose probity, prudence, and attachment to
himself he knew he could rely. The fleet left the port of St.
Jago de Cuba, May 1, 1518. ... Grijalva soon passed over to
the continent and coasted the peninsula, touching at the same
places as his predecessor. Everywhere he was struck, like him,

with the evidences of a higher civilization, especially in the
architecture; as he well might be, since this was the region
of those extraordinary remains which have become recently the
subject of so much speculation. He was astonished, also, at
the sight of large stone crosses, evidently objects of
worship, which he met with in various places. Reminded by
these circumstances of his own country, he gave the peninsula
the name New Spain, a name since appropriated to a much wider
extent of territory. Wherever Grijalva landed, he experienced
the same unfriendly reception as Cordova, though he suffered
less, being better prepared to meet it." He succeeded,
however, at last, in opening a friendly conference and traffic
with one of the chiefs, on the Rio de Tabasco, and "had the
satisfaction of receiving, for a few worthless toys and
trinkets, a rich treasure of jewels, gold ornaments and
vessels, of the most fantastic forms and workmanship. Grijalva
now thought that in this successful traffic--successful beyond
his most sanguine expectations--he had accomplished the chief
object of his mission." He therefore dispatched Alvarado, one
of his captains, to Velasquez, with the treasure acquired, and
continued his voyage along the coast, as far as the province
of Panuco, returning to Cuba at the end of about six months
from his departure. "On reaching the Island, he was surprised
to learn that another and more formidable armament had been
fitted out to follow up his own discoveries, and to find
orders at the same time from the governor, couched in no very
courteous language, to repair at once to St. Jago. He was
received by that personage, not merely with coldness, but with
reproaches, for having neglected so fair an opportunity of
establishing a colony in the country he had visited."
W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, book 2, chapter 1.
ALSO IN: C.
St. J. Fancourt, History of Yucatan, chapter 1-2.
Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Memoirs, V. 1, chapter 2-19.
AMERICA: A. D. 1519-1524.
The Spanish Conquest of Mexico.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1519-1524.
AMERICA: A. D. 1519-1524.
The Voyage of Magellan and Sebastian del Cano.
The New World passed and the Earth circumnavigated.
The Congress at Badajos.
Fernando Magellan, or Magalhaes, was "a disaffected Portuguese
gentleman who had served his country for five years in the Indies
under Albuquerque, and understood well the secrets of the
Eastern trade. In 1517, conjointly with his geographical and
astronomical friend, Ruy Falerio, another unrequited
Portuguese, he offered his services to the Spanish court. At
the same time these two friends proposed, not only to prove
that the Moluccas were within the Spanish lines of
demarkation, but to discover a passage thither different from
that used by the Portuguese. Their schemes were listened to,
adopted and carried out. The Straits of Magellan were
discovered, the broad South Sea was crossed, the Ladrones and
the Phillipines were inspected, the Moluccas were passed
through, the Cape of Good Hope was doubled on the homeward
voyage, and the globe was circumnavigated, all in less than
three years, from 1519 to 1522. Magellan lost his life, and
only one of his five ships returned [under Sebastian del Cano]
to tell the marvelous story. The magnitude of the enterprise
was equalled only by the magnitude of the results. The globe
for the first time began to assume its true character and size
in the minds of men, and the minds of men began soon to grasp
and utilize the results of this circumnavigation for the
enlargement of trade and commerce, and for the benefit of
geography, astronomy, mathematics, and the other sciences.
This wonderful story, is it not told in a thousand books? ...
The Portuguese in India and the Spiceries, as well as at home,
now seeing the inevitable conflict approaching, were
thoroughly aroused to the importance of maintaining their
rights. They openly asserted them, and pronounced this trade
with the Moluccas by the Spanish an encroachment on their
prior discoveries and possession, as well as a violation of
the Papal Compact of 1494, and prepared themselves
energetically for defense and offense. On the other hand, the
Spaniards as openly declared that Magellan's fleet carried the
first Christians to the Moluccas and by friendly intercourse
with the kings of those islands, reduced them to Christian
subjection and brought back letters and tribute to Cæsar.
Hence these kings and their people came under the protection
of Charles V. Besides this, the Spaniards claimed that the
Moluccas were within the Spanish half, and were therefore
doubly theirs. ... Matters thus waxing hot, King John of
Portugal begged Charles V. to delay dispatching his new fleet
until the disputed points could be discussed and settled.
Charles, who boasted that he had rather be right than rich,
consented, and the ships were staid. These two Christian
princes, who owned all the newly discovered and to be
discovered parts of the whole world between them by deed of
gift of the Pope, agreed to meet in Congress at Badajos by
their representatives, to discuss and settle all matters in
dispute about the division of their patrimony, and to define
and stake out their lands and waters, both parties agreeing to
abide by the decision of the Congress. Accordingly, in the
early spring of 1524, up went to this little border town
four-and-twenty wise men, or thereabouts, chosen by each
prince. They comprised the first judges, lawyers,
mathematicians, astronomers, cosmographers, navigators and
pilots of the land, among whose names were many honored now as
then--such as Fernando Columbus, Sebastian Cabot, Estevan
Gomez, Diego Ribero, etc. ... The debates and proceedings of
this Congress, as reported by Peter Martyr, Oviedo, and
Gomara, are very amusing, but no regular joint decision could
be reached, the Portuguese declining to subscribe to the
verdict of the Spaniards, inasmuch as it deprived them of the
Moluccas. So each party published and proclaimed its own
decision after the Congress broke up in confusion on the last
day of May, 1524. It was, however, tacitly understood that the
Moluccas fell to Spain, while Brazil, to the extent of two
hundred leagues from Cape St. Augustine, fell to the
Portuguese. ... However, much good resulted from this first
geographical Congress. The extent and breadth of the Pacific
were appreciated, and the influence of the Congress was soon
after seen in the greatly improved maps, globes, and charts."
H. Stevens, History and Geographical Notes,
1453-1530.
{63}
"For three months and twenty days he [Magellan] sailed on the
Pacific and never saw inhabited land. He was compelled by
famine to strip off the pieces of skin and leather wherewith
his rigging was here and there bound, to soak them in the sea
and then soften them with warm water, so as to make a wretched
food; to eat the sweepings of the ship and other loathsome
matter'; to drink water gone putrid by keeping; and yet he
resolutely held on his course, though his men were dying
daily. ... In the whole history of human undertakings there is
nothing that exceeds, if indeed there is anything that equals,
this voyage of Magellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in
comparison. It is a display of superhuman courage, superhuman
perseverance."
J. W. Draper, History of the Intellectual Development of
Europe, chapter 19.
"The voyage [of Magellan] ... was doubtless the greatest feat
of navigation that has ever been performed, and nothing can be
imagined that would surpass it except a journey to some other
planet. It has not the unique historic position of the first
voyage of Columbus, which brought together two streams of
human life that had been disjoined since the Glacial Period.
But as an achievement in ocean navigation that voyage of
Columbus sinks into insignificance by the side of it, and when
the earth was a second time encompassed by the greatest
English sailor of his age, the advance in knowledge, as well
as the different route chosen, had much reduced the difficulty
of the performance. When we consider the frailness of the
ships, the immeasurable extent of the unknown, the mutinies
that were prevented or quelled, and the hardships that were
endured, we can have no hesitation in speaking of Magellan as
the prince of navigators."
J. Fiske, The Discovery of America, chapter 7 (volume 2).
ALSO IN
Lord Stanley of Alderley, The First Voyage Round the
World (Hakluyt Society, 1874).
R. Kerr, Collection of Voyages, volume 10.
AMERICA: A. D. 1519-1525.
The Voyages of Garay and Ayllon.
Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi.
Exploration of the Carolina Coast.
In 1519, Francisco de Garay, governor of Jamaica, who had been
one of the companions of Columbus on his second voyage, having
heard of the richness and beauty of Yucatan, "at his own
charge sent out four ships well equipped, and with good
pilots, under the command of Alvarez Alonso de Pineda. His
professed object was to search for some strait, west of
Florida, which was not yet certainly known to form a part of
the continent. The strait having been sought for in vain, his
ships turned toward the west, attentively examining the ports,
rivers, inhabitants, and everything else that seemed worthy of
remark; and especially noticing the vast volume of water
brought down by one very large stream. At last they came upon
the track of Cortes near Vera Cruz. ... The carefully drawn
map of the pilots showed distinctly the Mississippi, which, in
this earliest authentic trace of its outlet, bears the name of
the Espiritu Santo. ... But Garay thought not of the
Mississippi and its valley: he coveted access to the wealth of
Mexico; and, in 1523, lost fortune and life ingloriously in a
dispute with Cortes for the government of the country on the
river Panuco. A voyage for slaves brought the Spaniards in
1520 still farther to the north. A company of seven, of whom
the most distinguished was Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, fitted out
two slave ships from St. Domingo, in quest of laborers for
their plantations and mines. From the Bahama Islands they
passed to the coast of South Carolina, which was called
Chicora. The Combahee river received the name of Jordan; the
name of St. Helena, whose day is the 18th of August, was given
to a cape, but now belongs to the sound." Luring a large
number of the confiding natives on board their ships the
adventurers treacherously set sail with them; but one of the
vessels foundered at sea, and most of the captives on the
other sickened and died. Vasquez de Ayllon was rewarded for
his treacherous exploit by being authorized and appointed to
make the conquest of Chicora. "For this bolder enterprise the
undertaker wasted his fortune in preparations; in 1525 his
largest ship was stranded in the river Jordan; many of his men
were killed by the natives; and he himself escaped only to
suffer from the consciousness of having done nothing worthy of
honor. Yet it may be that ships, sailing under his authority,
made the discovery of the Chesapeake and named it the bay of
St. Mary; and perhaps even entered the bay of Delaware, which,
in Spanish geography, was called St. Christopher's."
G. Bancroft, History of the U. 8., part 1, chapter 2.
ALSO IN
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States,
volume 4, chapter 11, and volume 5, chapters 6-7.
W. G. Simms, History of S. Carolina, book 1, chapter 1.
AMERICA: A. D. 1523-1524.
The Voyages of Verrazano.
First undertakings of France in the New World.
"It is constantly admitted in our history that our kings paid
no attention to America before the year 1523. Then Francis I.,
wishing to excite the emulation of his subjects in regard to
navigation and commerce, as he had already so successfully in
regard to the sciences and fine arts, ordered John Verazani,
who was in his service, to go and explore the New Lands, which
began to be much talked of in France. ... Verazani was
accordingly sent, in 1523, with four ships to discover North
America; but our historians have not spoken of his first
expedition, and we should be in ignorance of it now, had not
Ramusio preserved in his great collection a letter of Verazani
himself, addressed to Francis I. and dated Dieppe, July 8,
1524. In it he supposes the king already informed of the
success and details of the voyage, so that he contents himself
with stating that he sailed from Dieppe in four vessels, which
he had safely brought back to that port. In January, 1524, he
sailed with two ships, the Dauphine and the Normande, to
cruise against the Spaniards. Towards the close of the same
year, or early in the next, he again fitted out the Dauphine,
on which, embarking with 50 men and provisions for eight
months, he first sailed to the island of Madeira."
Father Charlevoix, History of New France
(translated by J. G. Shea), book 1.
{64}
"On the 17th of January, 1524, he [Verrazano] parted from the
'Islas desiertas,' a well-known little group of islands near
Madeira, and sailed at first westward, running in 25 days 500
leagues, with a light and pleasant easterly breeze, along the
northern border of the trade winds, in about 30° North. His track
was consequently nearly like that of Columbus on his first
voyage. On the 14th of February he met 'with as violent a
hurricane as any ship ever encountered.' But he weathered it,
and pursued his voyage to the west, 'with a little deviation
to the north;' when, after having sailed 24 days and 400
leagues, he descried a new country which, as he supposed, had
never before been seen either by modern or ancient navigators.
The country was very low. From the above description it is
evident that Verrazano came in sight of the east coast of the
United States about the 10th of March, 1524. He places his
land-fall in 34° North, which is the latitude of Cape Fear." He
first sailed southward, for about 50 leagues, he states,
looking for a harbor and finding none. He then turned
northward. "I infer that Verrazano saw little of the coast of
South Carolina and nothing of that of Georgia, and that in
these regions he can, at most, be called the discoverer only
of the coast of North Carolina. ... He rounded Cape Hatteras,
and at a distance of about 50 leagues came to another shore,
where he anchored and spent several days. ... This was the
second principal landing-place of Verrazano. If we reckon 50
leagues from Cape Hatteras, it would fall somewhere upon the
east coast of Delaware, in latitude 38° North, where, by some
authors, it is thought to have been. But if, as appears most
likely, Verrazano reckoned his distance here, as he did in
other cases, from his last anchoring, and not from Cape
Hatteras, we must look for his second landing somewhere south
of the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, and near the entrance to
Albemarle Sound. And this better agrees with the 'sail of 100
leagues' which Verrazano says he made from his second to his
third landing-place, in New York Bay. ... He found at this
third landing station an excellent berth, where he came to
anchor, well-protected from the winds, ... and from which he
ascended the river in his boat into the interior. He found the
shores very thickly settled, and as he passed up half a league
further, he discovered a most beautiful lake ... of three
leagues in circumference. Here, more than 30 canoes came to
him with a multitude of people, who seemed very friendly. ...
This description contains several accounts which make it still
more clear that the Bay of New York was the scene of these
occurrences."--Verrazano's anchorage having been at Gravesend
Bay, the river which he entered being the Narrows, and the
lake he found being the Inner Harbor. From New York Bay
Verrazano sailed eastward, along the southern shore of Long
Island, and following the New England coast, touching at or
describing points which are identified with Narragansett Bay
and Newport, Block Island or Martha's Vineyard, and
Portsmouth. His coasting voyage was pursued as far as 50° North,
from which point he sailed homeward. "He entered the port of
Dieppe early in July, 1524. His whole exploring expedition,
from Madeira and back, had accordingly lasted but five and a
half months."
J. G. Kohl, History of the Discovery of Maine
(Maine Historical Society Collection, 2d Series, volume 1),
chapter 8.
ALSO IN
G. Dexter, Cortereal, Verrazano, &c. (Narrative and
Critical History of America, volume 4, chapter 1).
Relation of Verrazano (New York Historical Society
Collection, volume 1, and N. S., volume 1).
J. C. Brevoort, Verrazano the Navigator.
AMERICA: A. D. 1524-1528.
The Explorations of Pizarro and Discovery of Peru.
"The South Sea having been discovered, and the inhabitants of
Tierra Firme having been conquered and pacified, the Governor
Pedrarias de Avila founded and settled the cities of Panama
and of Nata, and the town of Nombre de Dios. At this time the
Captain Francisco Pizarro, son of the Captain Gonzalo Pizarro,
a knight of the city of Truxillo, was living in the city of
Panama; possessing his house, his farm and his Indians, as one
of the principal people of the land, which indeed he always
was, having distinguished himself in the conquest and
settling, and in the service of his Majesty. Being at rest and
in repose, but full of zeal to continue his labours and to
perform other more distinguished services for the royal crown,
he sought permission from Pedrarias to discover that coast of
the South Sea to the eastward. He spent a large part of his
fortune on a good ship which he built, and on necessary
supplies for the voyage, and he set out from the city of
Panama on the 14th day of the month of November, in the year
1524. He had 112 Spaniards in his company, besides some Indian
servants. He commenced a voyage in which they suffered many
hardships, the season being winter and unpropitious." From
this unsuccessful voyage, during which many of his men died of
hunger and disease, and in the course of which he found no
country that tempted his cupidity or his ambition, Pizarro
returned after some months to "the land of Panama, landing at
an Indian village near the island of Pearls, called Chuchama.
Thence he sent the ship to Panama, for she had become
unseaworthy by reason of the teredo; and all that had befallen
was reported to Pedrarias, while the Captain remained behind
to refresh himself and his companions. When the ship arrived
at Panama it was found that, a few days before, the Captain
Diego de Almagro had sailed in search of the Captain Pizarro,
his companion, with another ship and 70 men." Almagro and his
party followed the coast until they came to a great river,
which they called San Juan Buenaventura, in New Granada]. ... They there found signs of
gold, but there being no traces of the Captain Pizarro, the
Captain Almagro returned to Chuchama, where he found his
comrade. They agreed that the Captain Almagro should go to
Panama, repair the ships, collect more men to continue the
enterprise, and defray the expenses, which amounted to more
than 10,000 castellanos. At Panama much obstruction was caused
by Pedrarias and others, who said that the voyage should not
be persisted in, and that his Majesty would not be served by
it. The Captain Almagro, with the authority given him by his
comrade, was very constant in prosecuting the work he had
commenced, and ... Pedrarias was forced to allow him to engage men.
{65}
He set out from Panama with 110 men; and went to
the place where Pizarro waited with another 50 of the first
110 who sailed with him, and of the 70 who accompanied Almagro
when he went in search. The other 130 were dead. The two
captains, in their two ships, sailed with 160 men, and coasted
along the land. When they thought they saw signs of
habitations, they went on shore in three canoes they had with
them, rowed by 60 men, and so they sought for provisions. They
continued to sail in this way for three years, suffering great
hardships from hunger and cold. The greater part of the crews
died of hunger, insomuch that there were not 50 surviving, and
during all those three years they discovered no good land. All
was swamp and inundated country, without inhabitants. The good
country they discovered was as far as the river San Juan,
where the Captain Pizarro remained with the few survivors,
sending a captain with the smaller ship to discover some good
land further along the coast. He sent the other ship, with the
Captain Diego de Almagro to Panama to get more men. At the
end of 70 days, the exploring ship came back with good
reports, and with specimens of gold, silver and cloths, found
in a country further south. "As soon as the Captain Almagro
arrived from Panama with a ship laden with men and horses, the
two ships, with their commanders and all their people, set out
from the river San Juan, to go to that newly-discovered land.
But the navigation was difficult; they were detained so long
that the provisions were exhausted, and the people were
obliged to go on shore in search of supplies. The ships
reached the bay of San Mateo, and some villages to which the
Spaniards gave the name of Santiago. Next they came to the
villages of Tacamez [Atacames, on the coast of modern
Ecuador], on the sea coast further on. These villages were
seen by the Christians to be large and well peopled: and when
90 Spaniards had advanced a league beyond the villages of
Tacamez, more than 10,000 Indian warriors encountered them;
but seeing that the Christians intended no evil, and did not
wish to take their goods, but rather to treat them peacefully,
with much love, the Indians desisted from war. In this land there
were abundant supplies, and the people led well-ordered lives,
the villages having their streets and squares. One village had
more than 3,000 houses, and others were smaller. It seemed to
the captains and to the other Spaniards that nothing could be
done in that land by reason of the smallness of their numbers,
which rendered them unable to cope with the Indians. So they
agreed to load the ships with the supplies to be found in the
villages, and to return to an island called Gallo, where they
would be safe until the ships arrived at Panama with the news
of what had been discovered, and to apply to the Governor for
more men, in order that the Captains might be able to continue
their undertaking, and conquer the land. Captain Almagro went
in the ships. Many persons had written to the Governor
entreating him to order the crews to return to Panama, saying
that it was impossible to endure more hardships than they had
suffered during the last three years. The Governor ordered
that all those who wished to go to Panama might do so, while
those who desired to continue the discoveries were at liberty
to remain. Sixteen men stayed with Pizarro, and all the rest
went back in the ships to Panama. The Captain Pizarro was on
that island for five months, when one of the ships returned,
in which he continued the discoveries for a hundred leagues
further down the coast. They found many villages and great
riches; and they brought away more specimens of gold, silver,
and cloths than had been found before, which were presented by
the natives. The Captain returned because the time granted by
the governor had expired, and the last day of the period had
been reached when he entered the port of Panama. The two
Captains were so ruined that they could no longer prosecute
their undertaking. ... The Captain Francisco Pizarro was only
able to borrow a little more than 1,000 castellanos among his
friends, with which sum he went to Castile, and gave an
account to his Majesty of the great and signal services he had
performed."
F. de Xeres (Sec. of Pizarro), Account of the Province
of Cuzco; translated and edited by C. R. Markham
(Hakluyt Society, 1872).
ALSO IN:
W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru,
book 2, chapters 2-4 (volume 1).
AMERICA: A. D. 1525.
The Voyage of Gomez.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): THE NAMES.
AMERICA: A. D. 1526-1531.
Voyage of Sebastian Cabot and attempted colonization of La Plata.
See PARAGUAY: A. D. 1515-1557.
AMERICA: A. D. 1528-1542.
The Florida Expeditions of Narvaez and Hernando de Soto.
Discovery of the Mississippi.
See FLORIDA: A. D. 1528-1542.
AMERICA: A. D. 1531-1533.
Pizarro's Conquest of Peru.
See PERU: A. D. 1528-1531, and 1531-1533.
AMERICA: A. D. 1533.
Spanish Conquest of the Kingdom of Quito.
See ECUADOR:
AMERICA: A. D. 1534-1535.
Exploration of the St. Lawrence to Montreal by Jacques Cartier.
"At last, ten years after [the voyages of Verrazano], Philip
Chabot, Admiral of France, induced the king [Francis I.] to
resume the project of founding a French colony in the New
World whence the Spaniards daily drew such great wealth; and
he presented to him a Captain of St. Malo, by name Jacques
Cartier, whose merit he knew, and whom that prince accepted.
Cartier having received his instructions, left St. Malo the 2d
of April, 1534, with two ships of 60 tons and 122 men. He
steered west, inclining slightly north, and had such fair
winds that, on the 10th of May, he made Cape Bonavista, in
Newfoundland, at 46° north. Cartier found the land there still
covered with snow, and the shore fringed with ice, so that he
could not or dared not stop; He ran down six degrees
south-southeast, and entered a port to which he gave the name
of St. Catharine. Thence he turned back north. ... After
making almost the circuit of Newfoundland, though without
being able to satisfy himself that it was an island, he took a
southerly course, crossed the gulf, approached the continent,
and entered a very deep bay, where he suffered greatly from
heat, whence he called it Chaleurs Bay. He was charmed with
the beauty of the country, and well pleased with the Indians
that he met and with whom he exchanged some goods for furs.
... On leaving this bay, Cartier visited a good part of the
coasts around the gulf, and took possession of the country in
the name of the most Christian king, as Verazani had done in
all the places where he landed.
{66}
He set sail again on the 15th of August to return to France,
and reached St. Malo safely on the 5th of September. ... On
the report which he made of his voyage, the court concluded
that it would be useful to France to have a settlement in that
part of America; but no one took this affair more to heart
than the Vice-Admiral Charles de Mony, Sieur de la Mailleraye.
This noble obtained a new commission for Cartier, more ample
than the first, and gave him three ships well equipped. This
fleet was ready about the middle of May, and Cartier ...
embarked on Wednesday the 19th." His three vessels were
separated by violent storms, but found one another, near the
close of July, in the gulf which was their appointed place of
rendezvous. "On the 1st of August bad weather drove him to
take refuge in the port of St. Nicholas, at the mouth of the
river on the north. Here Cartier planted a cross, with the
arms of France, and remained until the 7th. This port is
almost the only spot in Canada that has kept the name given by
Cartier. ... On the 10th the three vessels re-entered the
gulf, and in honor of the saint whose feast is celebrated on
that day, Cartier gave the gulf the name of St. Lawrence; or
rather he gave it to a bay lying between Anticosti Island and
the north shore, whence it extended to the whole gulf of which
this bay is part; and because the river, before that called
River of Canada, empties into the same gulf, it insensibly
acquired the name of St. Lawrence, which it still bears. ...
The three vessels ... ascended the river, and on the 1st of
September they entered the river Saguenay. Cartier merely
reconnoitered the mouth of this river, and ... hastened to
seek a port where his vessels might winter in safety. Eight
leagues above Isle aux Coudres he found another much larger
and handsomer island, all covered with trees and vines. He
called it Bacchus Island, but the name has been changed to
Isle d'Orleans. The author of the relation to this voyage,
printed under the name of Cartier, pretends that only here the
country begins to be called Canada. But he is surely mistaken;
for it is certain that from the earliest times the Indians
gave this name to the whole country along the river on both
sides, from its mouth to the Saguenay. From Bacchus Island,
Cartier proceeded to a little river which is ten leagues off,
and comes from the north; he called it Rivière de Ste Croix,
because he entered it on the 14th of September (Feast of the
Exaltation of the Holy Cross); but it is now commonly called
Rivière de Jacques Cartier. The day after his arrival he
received a visit from an Indian chief named Donnacona, whom
the author of the relation of that voyage styles Lord of
Canada. Cartier treated with this chief by means of two
Indians whom he had taken to France the year before, and who
knew a little French. They informed Donnacona that the
strangers wished to go to Hochelaga, which seemed to trouble
him. Hochelaga was a pretty large town, situated on an island
now known under the name of Island of Montreal. Cartier had
heard much of it, and was loth to return to France without
seeing it. The reason why this voyage troubled Donnacona was
that the people of Hochelaga were of a different nation from
his, and that he wished to profit exclusively by the
advantages which he hoped to derive from the stay of the
French in his country." Proceeding with one vessel to Lake St.
Pierre, and thence in two boats, Cartier reached Hochelaga
Oct. 2. "The shape of the town was round, and three rows of
palisades inclosed in it about 50 tunnel shaped cabins, each
over 50 paces long and 14 or 15 wide. It was entered by a
single gate, above which, as well as along the first palisade,
ran a kind of gallery, reached by ladders, and well provided
with pieces of rock and pebbles for the defence of the place.
The inhabitants of the town spoke the Huron language. They
received the French very well. ... Cartier visited the
mountain at the foot of which the town lay, and gave it the
name of Mont Royal, which has become that of the whole Island
[Montreal]. From it he discovered a great extent of country,
the sight of which charmed him. ... He left Hochelaga on the
5th of October, and on the 11th arrived at Sainte Croix."
Wintering at this place, where his crews suffered terribly
from the cold and from scurvy, he returned to France the
following spring. "Some authors ... pretend that Cartier,
disgusted with Canada, dissuaded the king, his master, from
further thoughts of it; and Champlain seems to have been of
that opinion. But this does not agree with what Cartier
himself says in his memoirs. ... Cartier in vain extolled the
country which he had discovered. His small returns, and the
wretched condition to which his men had been reduced by cold
and scurvy, persuaded most that it would never be of any use
to France. Great stress was laid on the fact that he nowhere
saw any appearance of mines; and then, even more than now, a
strange land which produced neither gold nor silver was
reckoned as nothing."
Father Charlevoix, History of New France
(translated by J. G. Shea), book 1.
ALSO IN:
R. Kerr, General Collection of Voyages,
part 2, book 2, chapter 12 (volume 6).
F. X. Garneau, History of Canada, volume 1, chapter 2.
AMERICA: A. D. 1535-1540.
Introduction of Printing in Mexico.
See PRINTING, &c.: A. D. 1535-1709.
AMERICA: A. D. 1535-1550.
Spanish Conquests in Chile.
See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.
AMERICA: A. D. 1536-1538.
Spanish Conquests of New Granada.
See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1536-1731.
AMERICA: A. D. 1541-1603.
Jacques Cartier's last Voyage.
Abortive attempts at French Colonization in Canada.
"Jean François de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a gentleman of
Picardy, was the most earnest and energetic of those who
desired to colonize the lands discovered by Jacques Cartier.
... The title and authority of lieutenant-general was
conferred upon him; his rule to extend over Canada. Hochelaga,
Saguenay, Newfoundland, Belle Isle, Carpon, Labrador, La Grand
Baye, and Baccalaos, with the delegated rights and powers of
the Crown. This patent was dated the 15th of January, 1540.
Jacques Cartier was named second in command. ... Jacques
Cartier sailed on the 23d of May, 1541, having provisioned his
fleet for two years." He remained on the St. Lawrence until
the following June, seeking vainly for the fabled wealth of
the land of Saguenay, finding the Indians strongly inclined to
a treacherous hostility, and suffering severe hardships during
the winter. Entirely discouraged and disgusted, he abandoned
his undertaking early in the summer of 1542, and sailed for home.
{67}
In the road of St. John's, Newfoundland, Cartier met his tardy
chief, Roberval, just coming to join him; but no persuasion
could induce the disappointed explorer to turn back. "To avoid
the chance of an open rupture with Roberval, the lieutenant
silently weighed anchor during the night, and made all sail
for France. This inglorious withdrawal from the enterprise
paralyzed Roberval's power, and deferred the permanent
settlement of Canada for generations then unborn. Jacques
Cartier died soon after his return to Europe." Roberval
proceeded to Canada, built a fort at Ste Croix, four leagues
west of Orleans, sent back two of his three ships to France,
and remained through the winter with his colony, having a
troubled time. There is no certain account of the ending of
the enterprise, but it ended in failure. For half a century
afterwards there was little attempt made by the French to
colonize any part of New France, though the French fisheries
on the Newfoundland Bank and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were
steadily growing in activity and importance. "When, after
fifty years of civil strife, the strong and wise sway of Henry
IV. restored rest to troubled France, the spirit of discovery
again arose. The Marquis de In Roche, a Breton gentleman,
obtained from the king, in 1598, a patent granting the same
powers that Roberval had possessed." But La Roche's
undertaking proved more disastrous than Roberval's had been.
Yet, there had been enough of successful fur-trading opened to
stimulate enterprise, despite these misfortunes. "Private
adventurers, unprotected by any special privilege, began to
barter for the rich peltries of the Canadian hunters. A
wealthy merchant of St. Malo, named Pontgravé, was the boldest
and most successful of these traders; he made several voyages
to Tadoussac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, bringing back each
time a rich cargo of rare and valuable furs." In 1600,
Pontgravé effected a partnership with one Chauvin, a naval
captain, who obtained a patent from the king giving him a
monopoly of the trade; but Chauvin died in 1602 without having
succeeded in establishing even a trading post at Tadoussac. De
Chatte, or De Chastes, governor of Dieppe, succeeded to the
privileges of Chauvin, and founded a company of merchants at
Rouen [1603] to undertake the development of the resources of
Canada. It was under the auspices of this company that Samuel
Champlain, the founder of New France, came upon the scene.
E. Warburton, The Conquest of Canada, volume 1, chapter 2-3.
ALSO IN:
F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World:
Champlain, chapter 1-2.
AMERICA: A. D. 1562-1567.
The slave trading Voyages of John Hawkins.
Beginnings of English Enterprise in the New World.
"The history of English America begins with the three
slave-trading voyages of John Hawkins, made in the years 1562,
1564, and 1567. Nothing that Englishmen had done in connection
with America, previously to those voyages, had any result
worth recording. England had known the New World nearly
seventy years, for John Cabot reached it shortly after its
discovery by Columbus; and, as the tidings of the discovery
spread, many English adventurers had crossed the Atlantic to
the American coast. But as years passed, and the excitement of
novelty subsided, the English voyages to America had become
fewer and fewer, and at length ceased altogether. It is easy
to account for this. There was no opening for conquest or
plunder, for the Tudors were at peace with the Spanish
sovereigns: and there could be no territorial occupation, for
the Papal title of Spain and Portugal to the whole of the new
continent could not be disputed by Catholic England. No trade
worth having existed with the natives: and Spain and Portugal
kept the trade with their own settlers in their own hands. ...
As the plantations in America grew and multiplied, the demand
for negroes rapidly increased. The Spaniards had no African
settlements, but the Portuguese had many, and, with the aid of
French and English adventurers, they procured from these
settlements slaves enough to supply both themselves and the
Spaniards. But the Brazilian plantations grew so fast, about
the middle of the century, that they absorbed the entire
supply, and the Spanish colonists knew not where to look for
negroes. This penury of slaves in the Spanish Indies became
known to the English and French captains who frequented the
Guinea coast; and John Hawkins, who had been engaged from
boyhood in the trade with Spain and the Canaries, resolved in
1562 to take a cargo of negro slaves to Hispaniola. The little
squadron with which he executed this project was the first
English squadron which navigated the West Indian seas. This
voyage opened those seas to the English. England had not yet
broken with Spain, and the law excluding English vessels from
trading with the Spanish colonists was not strictly enforced.
The trade was profitable, and Hawkins found no difficulty in
disposing of his cargo to great advantage. A meagre note ...
from the pen of Hakluyt contains all that is known of the
first American voyage of Hawkins. In its details it must have
closely resembled the second voyage. In the first voyage,
however, Hawkins had no occasion to carry his wares further
than three ports on the northern side of Hispaniola. These
ports, far away from San Domingo, the capital, were already
well known to the French smugglers. He did not venture into
the Caribbean Sea; and having loaded his ships with their
return cargo, he made the best of his way back. In his second
voyage ... he entered the Caribbean Sea, still keeping,
however, at a safe distance from San Domingo, and sold his
slaves on the mainland. This voyage was on a much larger
scale. ... Having sold his slaves in the continental ports
[South American], and loaded his vessels with hides and other
goods bought with the produce, Hawkins determined to strike
out a new path and sail home with the Gulf-stream, which would
carry him northwards past the shores of Florida. Sparke's
narrative ... proves that at every point in these expeditions
the Englishman was following in the track of the French. He
had French pilots and seamen on board, and there is little
doubt that one at least of these had already been with
Laudonnière in Florida. The French seamen guided him to
Laudonnière's settlement, where his arrival was most opportune.
They then pointed him the way by the coast of North America,
then universally know in the mass as New France, to
Newfoundland, and thence, with the prevailing westerly winds,
to Europe.
{68}
This was the pioneer voyage made by Englishmen along coasts
afterwards famous in history through English colonization. ...
The extremely interesting narrative ... given ... from the pen
of John Sparke, one of Hawkins' gentlemen companions ...
contains the first information concerning America and its
natives which was published in England by an English
eye-witness." Hawkins planned a third voyage in 1566, but the
remonstrances of the Spanish king caused him to be stopped by
the English court. He sent out his ships, however, and they
came home in due time richly freighted,--from what source is
not known. "In another year's time the aspect of things had
changed." England was venturing into war with Spain, "and
Hawkins was now able to execute his plans without restraint,
He founded a permanent fortified factory on the Guinea coast,
where negroes might be collected all the year round. Thence he
sailed for the West Indies a third time. Young Francis Drake
sailed with him in command of the 'Judith,' a small vessel of
fifty tons." The voyage had a prosperous beginning and a
disastrous ending. After disposing of most of their slaves,
they were driven by storms to take refuge in the Mexican port
of Vera Cruz, and there they were attacked by a Spanish fleet.
Drake in the "Judith" and Hawkins in another small vessel
escaped. But the latter was overcrowded with men and obliged
to put half of them ashore on the Mexican coast. The majority
of those left on board, as well as a majority of Drake's crew,
died on the voyage home, and it was a miserable remnant that
landed in England, in January, 1569.
E. J. Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to
America, chapter 1.
ALSO IN:
The Hawkins Voyages; edited by C. R. Markham
(Hakluyt Society, No. 57).
R. Southey, Lives of the British Admirals, volume 3.
AMERICA: A. D. 1572-1580.
The Piratical Adventures of Drake and his Encompassing of the
World.
"Francis Drake, the first of the English Buccaneers, was one
of the twelve children of Edward Drake of Tavistock, in
Devonshire, a staunch Protestant, who had fled his native
place to avoid persecution, and had then become a ship's
chaplain. Drake, like Columbus, had been a seaman by
profession from boyhood; and ... had served as a young man, in
command of the Judith, under Hawkins, ... Hawkins had confined
himself to smuggling: Drake advanced from this to piracy. This
practice was authorized by law in the middle ages for the
purpose of recovering debts or damages from the subjects of
another nation. The English, especially those of the west
country, were the most formidable pirates in the world; and
the whole nation was by this time roused against Spain, in
consequence of the ruthless war waged against Protestantism in
the Netherlands by Philip II. Drake had accounts of his own to
settle with the Spaniards. Though Elizabeth had not declared
for the revolted States, and pursued a shifting policy, her
interests and theirs were identical; and it was with a view of
cutting off those supplies of gold and silver from America
which enabled Philip to bribe politicians and pay soldiers, in
pursuit of his policy of aggression, that the famous voyage
was authorized by English statesmen. Drake had recently made
more than one successful voyage of plunder to the American
coast." In July, 1572, he surprised the Spanish town of Nombre
de Dios, which was the shipping port on the northern side of
the Isthmus for the treasures of Peru. His men made their way
into the royal treasure-house, where they laid hands on a heap
of bar-silver, 70 feet long, 10 wide, and 10 high; but Drake
himself had received a wound which compelled the pirates to
retreat with no very large part of the splendid booty. In the
winter of 1573, with the help of the runaway slaves on the
Isthmus, known as Cimarrones, he crossed the Isthmus, looked
on the Pacific ocean, approached within sight of the city of
Panama, and waylaid a transportation party conveying gold to
Nombre de Dios; but was disappointed of his prey by the
excited conduct of some of his men. When he saw, on this
occasion, the great ocean beyond the Isthmus, "Drake then and
there resolved to be the pioneer of England in the Pacific;
and on this resolution he solemnly besought the blessing of
God. Nearly four years elapsed before it was executed; for it
was not until November, 1577, that Drake embarked on his
famous voyage, in the course of which he proposed to plunder
Peru itself. The Peruvian ports were unfortified. The
Spaniards knew them to be by nature absolutely secured from
attack on the north; and they never dreamed that the English
pirates would be daring enough to pass the terrible straits of
Magellan and attack them from the south. Such was the plan of
Drake; and it was executed with complete success." He sailed
from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, with a fleet of four vessels,
and a pinnace, but lost one of the ships after he had entered
the Pacific, in a storm which drove him southward, and which
made him the discoverer of Cape Horn. Another of his ships,
separated from the squadron, returned home, and a third, while
attempting to do the same, was lost in the river Plate. Drake,
in his own vessel, the Golden Hind, proceeded to the Peruvian
coasts, where he cruised until be had taken and plundered a
score of Spanish ships. "Laden with a rich booty of Peruvian
treasure he deemed it unsafe to return by the way that he
came. He therefore resolved to strike across the Pacific, and
for this purpose made the latitude in which this voyage was
usually performed by the Spanish government vessels which
sailed annually from Acapulco to the Philippines. Drake thus
reached the coast of California, where the Indians, delighted
beyond measure by presents of clothing and trinkets, invited
him to remain and rule over them. Drake took possession of the
country in the name of the Queen, and refitted his vessel in
preparation for the unknown perils of the Pacific. The place
where He landed must have been either the great bay of San
Francisco [per contra., see CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1846-1847] or
the small bay of Bodega, which lies a few leagues further
north. The great seaman had already coasted five degrees more
to the northward before finding a suitable harbour. He
believed himself to be the first European who had coasted
these shores; but it is now well known that Spanish explorers
had preceded him. Drake's circumnavigation of the globe was
thus no deliberate feat of seamanship, but the necessary
result of circumstances. The voyage made in more than one way
a great epoch in English nautical history." Drake reached
Plymouth on his return Sept. 26, 1580.
E. J. Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen, pages
141-143.
ALSO IN
F. Fletcher, The World Encompassed by Sir F. Drake
(Hakluyt Society, 1854).
J. Barrow, Life of Drake.
R. Southey, Lives of British Admirals, volume 3.
{69}
AMERICA: A. D. 1580.
The final founding of the City of Buenos Ayres.
See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC; A. D: 1580-1777.
AMERICA: A. D. 1583.
The Expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert.
Formal possession taken of Newfoundland.
In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, an English gentleman, of
Devonshire, whose younger half-brother was the more famous Sir
Walter Raleigh, obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter
empowering him, for the next six years, to discover "such
remote heathen and barbarous lands, not actually possessed by
any Christian prince or people," as he might be shrewd or
fortunate enough to find, and to occupy the same as their
proprietor. Gilbert's first expedition was attempted the next
year, with Sir Walter Raleigh associated in it; but
misfortunes drove back the adventurers to port, and Spanish
intrigue prevented their sailing again. "In June, 1583,
Gilbert sailed from Cawsund Bay with five vessels, with the
general intention of discovering and colonizing the northern
parts of America. It was the first colonizing expedition which
left the shores of Great Britain; and the narrative of the
expedition by Hayes, who commanded one of Gilbert's vessels,
forms the first page in the history of English colonization.
Gilbert did no more than go through the empty form of taking
possession of the island of Newfoundland, to which the English
name formerly applied to the continent in general ... was now
restricted. ... Gilbert dallied here too long. When he set
sail to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence and take possession of
Cape Breton and Nova Scotia the season was too far advanced;
one of his largest ships went down with all on board,
including the Hungarian scholar Parmenius, who had come out as
the historian of the expedition; the stores were exhausted and
the crews dispirited; and Gilbert resolved on sailing home,
intending to return and prosecute his discoveries the next
spring. On the home voyage the little vessel in which he was
sailing foundered; and the pioneer of English colonization
found a watery grave. ... Gilbert was a man of courage, piety,
and learning. He was, however, an indifferent seaman, and
quite incompetent for the task of colonization to which he had
set his hand. The misfortunes of his expedition induced Amadas
and Barlow, who followed in his steps, to abandon the
northward voyage and sail to the shores intended to be
occupied by the easier but more circuitous route of the
Canaries and the West Indies."
E. J. Payne, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen,
pages 173-174.
"On Monday, the 9th of September, in the afternoon, the
frigate [the' Squirrel'] was near cast away, oppressed by
waves, yet at that time recovered; and giving forth signs of
joy, the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried
out to us in the 'Hind' (so oft as we did approach within
hearing), 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land,'
reiterating the same speech, well beseeming a soldier resolute
in Jesus Christ, as I can testify he was. On the same Monday
night, about twelve o'clock, or not long after, the frigate
being ahead of us in the 'Golden Hind,' suddenly her lights
were out, whereof as it were in a moment we lost the sight,
and withal our watch cried the General was cast away, which
was too true; for in that moment the frigate was devoured and
swallowed up by the sea. Yet still we looked out all that
night and ever after, until we arrived upon the coast of
England. ... In great torment of weather and peril of drowning
it pleased God to send safe home the 'Golden Hind,' which
arrived in Falmouth on the 22d of September, being Sunday."
E. Hayes, A Report of the Voyage by Sir Humphrey Gilbert
(reprinted in Payne's Voyages).
ALSO IN
E. Edwards, Life of Raleigh, volume 1, chapter 5.
R. Hakluyt, Principal Navigations; edited by E. Goldsmid,
volume 12.
AMERICA: A. D. 1584-1586.
Raleigh's First Colonizing attempts and failures.
"The task in which Gilbert had failed was to be undertaken by
one better qualified to carry it out. If any Englishman in
that age seemed to be marked out as the founder of a colonial
empire, it was Raleigh. Like Gilbert, he had studied books;
like Drake he could rule men. ... The associations of his
youth, and the training of his early manhood, fitted him to
sympathize with the aims of his half-brother Gilbert, and
there is little reason to doubt that Raleigh had a share in
his undertaking and his failure. In 1584 he obtained a patent
precisely similar to Gilbert's. His first step showed the
thoughtful and well-planned system on which he began his task.
Two ships were sent out, not with any idea of settlement, but
to examine and report upon the country. Their commanders were
Arthur Barlow and Philip Amidas. To the former we owe the
extant record of the voyage: the name of the latter would
suggest that he was a foreigner. Whether by chance or design,
they took a more southerly course than any of their
predecessors. On the 2d of July the presence of shallow water,
and a smell of sweet flowers, warned them that land was near.
The promise thus given was amply fulfilled upon their
approach. The sight before them was far different from that
which had met the eyes of Hore and Gilbert. Instead of the
bleak coast of Newfoundland, Barlow and Amidas looked upon a
scene which might recall the softness of the Mediterranean.
... Coasting along for about 120 miles, the voyagers reached
an inlet and with some difficulty entered. They then solemnly
took possession of the land in the Queen's name, and then
delivered it over to Raleigh according to his patent. They
soon discovered that the land upon which they had touched was
an island about 20 miles long, and not above six broad, named,
as they afterwards learnt, Roanoke. Beyond, separating them
from the mainland, lay an enclosed sea, studded with more than
a hundred fertile and well-wooded islets." The Indians proved
friendly, and were described by Barlow as being "most gentle,
loving and faithful, void of all guile and treason, and such
as live after the manner of the golden age." "The report which
the voyagers took home spoke as favourably of the land itself
as of its inhabitants. ... With them they brought two of the
savages, named Wanchese and Manteo. A probable tradition tells
us that the queen herself named the country Virginia, and that
Raleigh's knighthood was the reward and acknowledgment of his
success.
{70}
On the strength of this report Raleigh at once made
preparations for a settlement. A fleet of seven ships was
provided for the conveyance of 108 settlers. The fleet was
under the command of Sir Richard Grenvillle, who was to
establish the settlement and leave it under the charge of
Ralph Lane. ... On the 9th of April [1585] the emigrants set
sail." For some reason not well explained, the fleet made a
circuit to the West Indies, and loitered for five weeks at the
island of St. John's and at Hispaniola, reaching Virginia in
the last days of June. Quarrels between the two commanders,
Grenville and Lane, had already begun, and both seemed equally
ready to provoke the enmity of the natives. In August, after
exploring some sixty miles of the coast, Grenville returned to
England, promising to come back the next spring with new
colonists and stores. The settlement, thus left to the care of
Lane, was established "at the north-east corner of the island
of Roanoke, whence the settlers could command the strait.
There, even now, choked by vines and underwood, and here and
there broken by the crumbling remains of an earthen bastion,
may be traced the outlines of the ditch which enclosed the
camp, some forty yards square, the home of the first English
settlers in the New World. Of the doings of the settlers
during the winter nothing is recorded, but by the next spring
their prospects looked gloomy. The Indians were no longer

friends. ... The settlers, unable to make fishing weirs, and
without seed corn, were entirely dependent on the Indians for
their daily food. Under these circumstances, one would have
supposed that Lane would have best employed himself in
guarding the settlement and improving its condition. He,
however, thought otherwise, and applied himself to the task of
exploring the neighbouring territory." But a wide combination
of hostile Indian tribes had been formed against the English,
and their situation became from day to day more imperilled. At
the beginning of June, 1586, Lane fought a bold battle with
the savages and routed them; but no sign of Grenville appeared
and the prospect looked hopeless. Just at this juncture, a
great English fleet, sailing homewards from a piratical
expedition to the Spanish Main, under the famous Captain
Drake, came to anchor at Roanoke and offered succor to the
disheartened colonists. With one voice they petitioned to be
taken to England, and Drake received the whole party on board
his ships. "The help of which the colonists had despaired was
in reality close at hand. Scarcely had Drake's fleet left the
coast when a ship well furnished by Raleigh with needful
supplies, reached Virginia, and after searching for the
departed settlers returned to England. About a fortnight later
Grenville himself arrived with three ships. He spent some time in
the country exploring, searching for the settlers, and at last,
unwilling to lose possession of the country, landed fifteen
men at Roanoke well supplied for two years, and then set sail
for England, plundering the Azores, and doing much damage to
the Spaniards."
J. A. Doyle, The English in America: Virginia, &c.,
chapter 4.
"It seems to be generally admitted that, when Lane and his
company went back to England, they carried with them tobacco
as one of the products of the country, which they presented to
Raleigh, as the planter of the colony, and by him it was
brought into use in England, and gradually in other European
countries. The authorities are not entirely agreed upon this
point. Josselyn says: 'Tobacco first brought into England by
Sir John Hawkins, but first brought into use by Sir Walter
Rawleigh many years after.' Again he says: 'Now (say some)
Tobacco was first brought into England by Mr. Ralph Lane, out
of Virginia. Others will have Tobacco to be first brought into
England from Peru, by Sir Francis Drake's Mariners.' Camden
fixes its introduction into England by Ralph Lane and the men
brought back with him in the ships of Drake. He says: 'And
these men which were brought back were the first that I know
of, which brought into England that Indian plant which they
call Tobacco and Nicotia, and use it against crudities, being
taught it by the Indians.' Certainly from that time it began
to be in great request, and to be sold at a high rate. ...
Among the 108 men left in the colony with Ralph Lane in 1585
was Mr. Thomas Hariot, a man of a strongly mathematical and
scientific turn, whose services in this connection were
greatly valued. He remained there an entire year, and went
back to England in 1586. He wrote out a full account of his
observations in the New World."
L. N. Tarbox, Sir Walter Raleigh and his Colony (Prince
Society 1884).
ALSO IN
T. Hariot, Brief and true Report (Reprinted in
above-named Prince Society Publication).
F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina, volume 1 (containing
reprints of Lane's Account, Hariot's Report, &c.)
Original Documents edited by E. E. Hale
(Archæologia Americana, volume 4).
AMERICA: A. D. 1587-1590.
The Lost Colony of Roanoke.
End of the Virginia Undertakings of Sir Walter Raleigh.
"Raleigh, undismayed by losses, determined to plant an
agricultural state; to send emigrants with their wives and
families, who should make their homes in the New World; and,
that life and property might be secured, in January, 1587, he
granted a charter for the settlement, and a municipal
government for the city of 'Raleigh.' John White was appointed
its governor; and to him, with eleven assistants, the
administration of the colony was intrusted. Transport ships
were prepared at the expense of the proprietary; 'Queen
Elizabeth, the godmother of Virginia,' declined contributing
'to its education.' Embarking in April, in July they arrived
on the coast of North Carolina; they were saved from the
dangers of Cape Fear; and, passing Cape Hatteras, they
hastened to the isle of Roanoke, to search for the handful of
men whom Grenville had left there as a garrison. They found
the tenements deserted and overgrown with weeds; human bones
lay scattered on the field where wild deer were reposing. The
fort was in ruins. No vestige of surviving life appeared. The
instructions of Raleigh had designated the place for the new
settlement on the bay of Chesapeake. But Fernando, the naval
officer, eager to renew a profitable traffic in the West
Indies, refused his assistance in exploring the coast, and
White was compelled to remain on Roanoke. ... It was there
that in July the foundations of the city of Raleigh were laid.
But the colony was doomed to disaster from the beginning,
being quickly involved in warfare with the surrounding
natives. "With the returning ship White embarked for England,
under the excuse of interceding for re-enforcements and
supplies.
{71}
Yet, on the 18th of August, nine days previous to
his departure, his daughter Eleanor Dare, the wife of one of
the assistants, gave birth to a female child, the first
offspring of English parents on the soil of the United States.
The infant was named from the place of its birth. The colony,
now composed of 89 men, 17 women, and two children, whose
names are all preserved, might reasonably hope for the speedy
return of the governor, as he left with them his daughter and
his grandchild, Virginia Dare. The farther history of this
plantation is involved in gloomy uncertainty. The inhabitants
of 'the city of Raleigh,' the emigrants from England and the
first-born of America, awaited death in the land of their
adoption. For, when White reached England, he found its
attention absorbed by the threats of an invasion from Spain.
... Yet Raleigh, whose patriotism did not diminish his
generosity, found means, in April 1588, to despatch White with
supplies in two vessels. But the company, desiring a gainful
voyage rather than a safe one, ran in chase of prizes, till
one of them fell in with men of war from Rochelle, and, after
a bloody fight, was boarded and rifled. Both ships were
compelled to return to England. The delay was fatal: the
English kingdom and the Protestant reformation were in danger;
nor could the poor colonists of Roanoke be again remembered
till after the discomfiture of the Invincible Armada. Even
then Sir Walter Raleigh, who had already incurred a fruitless
expense of £40,000, found his impaired fortune insufficient
for further attempts at colonizing Virginia. He therefore used
the privilege of his patent to endow a company of merchants
and adventurers with large concessions. Among the men who thus
obtained an assignment of the proprietary's rights in Virginia
is found the name of Richard Hakluyt; it connects the first
efforts of England in North Carolina with the final
colonization of Virginia. The colonists at Roanoke had
emigrated with a charter; the instrument of March, 1589, was
not an assignment of Raleigh's patent, but the extension of a
grant, already held under its sanction by increasing the
number to whom the rights of that charter belonged. More than
another year elapsed before White could return to search for
his colony and his daughter; and then the island of Roanoke
was a desert. An inscription on the bark of a tree pointed to
Croatan; but the season of the year and the dangers from
storms were pleaded as an excuse for an immediate return. The
conjecture has been hazarded that the deserted colony,
neglected by their own countrymen, were hospitably adopted
into the tribe [the Croatans] of Hatteras Indians. Raleigh
long cherished the hope of discovering some vestiges of their
existence, and sent at his own charge, and, it is said, at
five several times, to search for his liege men. But
imagination received no help in its attempts to trace the fate
of the colony of Roanoke."
G. Bancroft, History of the United States,
part 1, ch.5 (volume 1).
"The Croatans of to-day claim descent from the lost colony.
Their habits, disposition and mental characteristics show
traces both of savage and civilized ancestors. Their language
is the English of 300 years ago, and their names are in many
cases the same as those borne by the original colonists. No
other theory of their origin has been advanced."
S. B. Weeks, The Lost Colony of Roanoke (American
History Association Papers, volume 5, part 4).
"This last expedition [of White, searching for his lost
colony] was not despatched by Raleigh, but by his successors
in the American patent. And our history is now to take leave
of that illustrious man, with whose schemes and enterprises it
ceases to have any further connexion. The ardour of his mind
was not exhausted, but diverted by a multiplicity of new and
not less arduous undertakings. ... Desirous, at the same time,
that a project which he had carried so far should not be
entirely abandoned, and hoping that the spirit of commerce
would preserve an intercourse with Virginia that might
terminate in a colonial establishment, he consented to assign
his patent to Sir Thomas Smith, and a company of merchants in
London, who undertook to establish and maintain a traffic
between England and Virginia. ... It appeared very soon that
Raleigh had transferred his patent to bands very different
from his own. ... Satisfied with a paltry traffic carried on
by a few small vessels, they made no attempt to take
possession of the country: and at the period of Elizabeth's
death, not a single Englishman was settled in America."
J. Grahame, History of the Rise and Progress of the
United States of North America till 1688, chapter 1.
ALSO IN
W. Stith, History of Va., book 1.
F. L. Hawks, History of N. C., volume 1, Nos. 7-8.
AMERICA: A. D. 1602-1605.
The Voyages of Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth.
The First Englishmen In New England.
Bartholomew Gosnold was a West-of-England mariner who had
served in the expeditions of Sir Walter Raleigh to the
Virginia coast. Under his command, in the spring of 1602,
"with the consent of Sir Walter Raleigh, and at the cost,
among others, of Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, the
accomplished patron of Shakespeare, a small vessel, called the
Concord, was equipped for exploration in 'the north part of
Virginia,' with a view to the establishment of a colony. At
this time, in the last year of the Tudor dynasty, and nineteen
years after the fatal termination of Gilbert's enterprise,
there was no European Inhabitant of North America, except
those of Spanish birth in Florida, and some twenty or thirty
French, the miserable relics of two frustrated attempts to
settle what they called New France. Gosnold sailed from
Falmouth with a company of thirty-two persons, of whom eight
were seamen, and twenty were to become planters. Taking a
straight course across the Atlantic, instead of the indirect
course by the Canaries and the West Indies which had been
hitherto pursued in voyages to Virginia, at the end of seven
weeks he saw land in Massachusetts Bay, probably near what is
now Salem Harbor. Here a boat came off, of Basque build,
manned by eight natives, of whom two or three were dressed in
European clothes, indicating the presence of earlier foreign
voyagers in these waters. Next he stood to the southward, and
his crew took great quantities of codfish by a head land,
called by him for that reason Cape Cod, the name which it
retains. Gosnold, Brereton, and three others, went on shore,
the first Englishmen who are known to have set foot upon the
soil of Massachusetts. ... Sounding his way cautiously along,
first in a southerly, and then in a westerly direction, and
probably passing to the south of Nantucket, Gosnold next
landed on a small island, now called No Man's Land.
{72}
To this he gave the name of Martha's Vineyard, since
transferred to the larger island further north. ... South of
Buzzard's Bay, and separated on the south by the Vineyard
Sound from Martha's Vineyard, is scattered the group denoted
on modern maps as the Elizabeth Islands. The southwesternmost
of these, now known by the Indian name of Cuttyhunk, was
denominated by Gosnold Elizabeth Island. ... Here Gosnold
found a pond two miles in circumference, separated from the
sea on one side by a beach thirty yards wide, and enclosing 'a
rocky islet, containing near an acre of ground, full of wood and
rubbish.' This islet was fixed upon for a settlement. In three
weeks, while a part of the company were absent on a trading
expedition to the mainland, the rest dug and stoned a cellar,
prepared timber and built a house, which they fortified with
palisades, and thatched with sedge. Proceeding to make an
inventory of their provisions, they found that, after
supplying the vessel, which was to take twelve men on the
return voyage, there would be a sufficiency for only six weeks
for the twenty men who would remain. A dispute arose upon the
question whether the party to be left behind would receive a
share in the proceeds of the cargo of cedar, sassafras, furs,
and other commodities which had been collected. A small party,
going out in quest of shell-fish, was attacked by some
Indians. With men having already, it is likely, little stomach
for such cheerless work, these circumstances easily led to the
decision to abandon for the present the scheme of a
settlement, and in the following month the adventurers sailed
for England, and, after a voyage of five weeks, arrived at
Exmouth. ... The expedition of Gosnold was pregnant with
consequences, though their development was slow. The accounts
of the hitherto unknown country, which were circulated by his
company on their return, excited an earnest interest." The
next year (April, 1603), Martin Pring or Prynne was sent out,
by several merchants of Bristol, with two small vessels.
seeking cargoes of sassafras, which had acquired a high value
on account of supposed medicinal virtues. Pring coasted from
Maine to Martha's Vineyard, secured his desired cargoes, and
gave a good account of the country. Two years later (March,
1605), Lord Soathampton and Lord Wardour sent a vessel
commanded by George Weymouth to reconnoitre the same coast
with an eye to settlements. Weymouth ascended either the
Kennebec or the Penobscot river some 50 or 60 miles and
kidnapped five natives. "Except for this, and for some
addition to the knowledge of the local geography, the voyage
was fruitless."
J. G. Palfrey, History of New England,
volume 1, chapter 2.
ALSO IN
Massachusetts History Society Collection,
3d Series, volume 8 (1843).
J. McKeen, On the Voyage of George Weymouth
(Maine History Society Collection, volume 5).
AMERICA: A. D. 1603-1608.
The First French Settlements in Acadia.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1603-1605, and 1606-1608.
AMERICA: A. D. 1607.
The founding of the English Colony of Virginia, and the
failure in Maine.
See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1606-1607, and after;
and MAINE: A. D. 1607-1608.
AMERICA: A. D. 1607-1608.
The First Voyages of Henry Hudson.
"The first recorded voyage made by Henry Hudson was undertaken
... for the Muscovy or Russia Company [of England]. Departing
from Gravesend the first of May, 1607, with the intention of
sailing straight across the north pole, by the north of what
is now called Greenland, Hudson found that this land stretched
further to the eastward than he had anticipated, and that a
wall of ice, along which he coasted, extended from Greenland
to Spitzbergen. Forced to relinquish the hope of finding a
passage in the latter vicinity, he once more attempted the
entrance of Davis' Straits by the north of Greenland. This
design was also frustrated and he apparently renewed the
attempt in a lower latitude and nearer Greenland on his
homeward voyage. In this cruise Hudson attained a higher
degree of latitude than any previous navigator. ... He reached
England on his return on the 15th September of that year
[1607]. ... On the 22d of April, 1608, Henry Hudson commenced
his second recorded voyage for the Muscovy or Russia Company,
with the design of 'finding a passage to the East Indies· by
the north-east. ... On the 3d of June, 1608, Hudson had
reached the most northern point of Norway, and on the 11th was
in latitude 75° 24', between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla."
Failing to pass to the north-east beyond Nova Zembla, he
returned to England in August.
J. M. Read, Jr., Historical Inquiry Concerning Henry
Hudson, pages 133-138.
ALSO IN
G. M. Asher, Henry Hudson, the Navigator
(Hakluyt Society, 1860).
AMERICA: A. D. 1608-1616.
Champlain's Explorations in the Valley of the St. Lawrence and
the Great Lakes.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1608-1611, and 1611-1616.
AMERICA: A. D. 1609.
Hudson's Voyage of Discovery for the Dutch.
"The failure of two expeditions daunted the enterprise of
Hudson's employers [the Muscovy Company, in England]; they
could not daunt the courage of the great navigator, who was
destined to become the rival of Smith and of Champlain. He
longed to tempt once more the dangers of the northern sea;
and, repairing to Holland, he offered, in the service of the
Dutch East India Company, to explore the icy wastes in search
of the coveted passage. The voyage of Smith to Virginia
stimulated desire; the Zealanders, fearing the loss of
treasure, objected; but, by the influence of Balthazar
Moucheron, the directors for Amsterdam resolved on equipping a
small vessel of discovery; and, on the 4th day of April, 1609,
the 'Crescent' [or 'Half-Moon' as the name of the little ship
is more commonly translated], commanded by Hudson, and manned
by a mixed crew of Englishmen and Hollanders, his son being of
the number, set sail for the north-western passage. Masses of
ice impeded the navigation towards Nova Zembla; Hudson, who
had examined the maps of John Smith of Virginia, turned to the
west; and passing beyond Greenland and Newfoundland, and
running down the coast of Acadia, he anchored, probably, in
the mouth of the Penobscot. Then, following the track of
Gosnold, he came upon the promontory of Cape Cod, and,
believing himself its first discoverer, gave it the name of
New Holland. Long afterwards, it was claimed as the
north-eastern boundary of New Netherlands. From the sands of
Cape Cod, he steered a southerly course till he was opposite
the entrance into the bay of Virginia, where Hudson remembered
that his countrymen were planted.
{73}
Then, turning again to the north, he discovered the Delaware
Bay, examined its currents and its soundings, and, without
going on shore, took note of the aspect of the country. On the
3d day of September, almost at the time when Champlain was
invading New York from the north, less than five months after
the truce with Spain, which gave the Netherlands a diplomatic
existence as a state, the 'Crescent' anchored within Sandy
Hook, and from the neighboring shores, that were crowned with
'goodly oakes,' attracted frequent visits from the natives.
After a week's delay, Hudson sailed through the Narrows, and
at the mouth of the river anchored in a harbor which was
pronounced to be very good for all winds. ... Ten days were
employed in exploring the river; the first of Europeans,
Hudson went sounding his way above the Highlands, till at last
the 'Crescent' had sailed some miles beyond the city of
Hudson, and a boat had advanced a little beyond Albany.
Frequent intercourse was held with the astonished natives [and
two battles fought with them]. ... Having completed his
discovery, Hudson descended the stream to which time has given
his name, and on the 4th day of October, about the season of
the return of John Smith to England, he set sail for Europe.
... A happy return voyage brought the 'Crescent' into
Dartmouth. Hudson forwarded to his Dutch employers a brilliant
account of his discoveries; but he never revisited the lands
which he eulogized: and the Dutch East-India Company refused
to search further for the north-western passage."
G. Bancroft, History of the U. S., chapter 15 (or part
2, chapter 12 of "Author's Last Revision").
ALSO IN
H. R. CLEVELAND, Life of Henry Hudson (Library of American
Biographies, volume 10), chapters 3-4.
R. Juet, Journal of Hudson's Voyage (New York History
Society Collection., Second Series, volume 1).
J. V. N. Yates and J. W. Moulton, History of the State of
New York, part 1.
AMERICA: A. D. 1610-1614.
The Dutch occupation of New Netherland, and Block's coasting
exploration.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1610-1614.
AMERICA: A. D. 1614-1615.
The Voyages of Capt. John Smith to North Virginia.
The Naming of the country New England.
"From the time of Capt. Smith's departure from Virginia [see
VIRGINIA: A. D. 1607-1610], till the year 1614, there is a
chasm in his biography. . . . In 1614, probably by his advice
and at his suggestion, an expedition was fitted out by some
London merchants, in the expense of which he also shared, for
the purposes of trade and discovery in New England, or, as it
was then called, North Virginia. ... In March, 1614, he set
sail from London with two ships, one commanded by himself, and
the other by Captain Thomas Hunt. They arrived, April 30th, at
the island of Manhegin, on the coast of Maine, where they
built seven boats. The purposes for which they were sent were
to capture whales and to search for mines of gold or copper,
which were said to be there, and, if these failed, to make up
a cargo of fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indications,
and they found whale-fishing a 'costly conclusion;' for,
although they saw many, and chased them too, they succeeded in
taking none. They thus lost the best part of the fishing
season; but, after giving up their gigantic game, they
diligently employed the months of July and August in taking
and curing codfish, an humble, but more certain prey. While
the crew were thus employed, Captain Smith, with eight men in
a small boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, from
Penobscot to Cape Cod, trafficking with the Indians for furs,
and twice fighting with them, and taking such observations of
the prominent points as enabled him to construct a map of the
country. He then sailed for England, where he arrived in
August, within six months after his departure. He left Captain
Hunt behind him, with orders to dispose of his cargo of fish
in Spain. Unfortunately, Hunt was a sordid and unprincipled
miscreant, who resolved to make his countrymen odious to the
Indians, and thus prevent the establishment of a permanent
colony, which would diminish the large gains he and a few
others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traffic. For this
purpose, having decoyed 24 of the natives on board his ship,
he carried them off and sold them as slaves in the port of
Malaga. . . . Captain Smith, upon his return, presented his
map of the country between Penobscot and Cape Cod to Prince
Charles (afterwards Charles I.), with a request that he would
substitute others, instead of the 'barbarous names' which had
been given to particular places. Smith himself gave to the
country the name of New England, as he expressly states, and
not Prince Charles, as is commonly supposed. ... The first
port into which Captain Smith put on his return to England was
Plymouth. There he related his adventures to some of his
friends, 'who,' he says, 'as I supposed, were interested in
the dead patent of this unregarded country.' The Plymouth
Company of adventurers to North Virginia, by flattering hopes
and large promises, induced him to engage his services to
them." Accordingly in March, 1615, he sailed from Plymouth,
with two vessels under his command, bearing 16 settlers,
besides their crew. A storm dismasted Smith's ship and drove
her back to Plymouth. "His consort, commanded by Thomas
Dermer, meanwhile proceeded on her voyage, and returned with a
profitable cargo in August; but the object, which was to
effect a permanent settlement, was frustrated. Captain Smith's
vessel was probably found to be so much shattered as to render
it inexpedient to repair her; for we find that he set sail a
second time from Plymouth, on the 24th of June, in a small
bark of 60 tons, manned by 30 men, and carrying with him the
same 16 settlers he had taken before. But an evil destiny
seemed to hang over this enterprise, and to make the voyage a
succession of disasters and disappointments." It ended in
Smith's capture by a piratical French fleet and his detention
for some months, until he made a daring escape in a small
boat. "While he had been detained on board the French pirate,
in order, as he says, 'to keep my perplexed thoughts from too
much meditation of my miserable estate,' he employed himself
in writing a narrative of his two voyages to New England, and
an account of the country. This was published in a quarto form
in June, 1616. ... Captain Smith's work on New England was the
first to recommend that country as a place of settlement."
G. S. Hillard, Life of Captain John Smith (ch. 14-15).
ALSO IN
Captain John Smith, Description of New England.
{74}
AMERICA: A. D. 1619.
Introduction of negro slavery into Virginia.
See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1619.
AMERICA: A. D. 1620.
The Planting of the Pilgrim Colony at Plymouth, and the
Chartering of the Council for New England.
See MASSACHUSETTS (PLYMOUTH COLONY): A. D. 1620;
and NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1620-1623.
AMERICA: A. D. 1620.
Formation of the Government of Rio de La Plata.
See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.
AMERICA: A. D. 1621.
Conflicting claims of England and France on the North-eastern coast.
Naming and granting of Nova Scotia.
See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1621-1631.
AMERICA: A. D. 1629.
The Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.
"Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general to Charles I., obtained a
grant of the lands between the 38th [36th?] degree of north
latitude to the river St. Matheo. His charter bears date of
October 5, 1629. ... The tenure is declared to be as ample as
any bishop of Durham [Palatine], in the kingdom of England,
ever held and enjoyed, or ought or could of right have held
and enjoyed. Sir Robert, his heirs and assigns, are
constituted the true and absolute lords and proprietors, and
the country is erected into a province by the name of Carolina
[or Carolana] and the islands are to be called the Carolina
islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right some time after to the
earl of Arundel. This nobleman, it is said, planted several
parts of his acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was
checked by the war with Scotland, and afterwards the civil
war. Lord Maltravers, who soon after, on his father's death,
became earl of Arundel and Sussex ... made no attempt to avail
himself of the grant. ... Sir Robert Heath's grant of land, to
the southward of Virginia, perhaps the most extensive
possession ever owned by an individual, remained for a long
time almost absolutely waste and uncultivated. This vast
extent of territory occupied all the country between the 30th
and 36th degrees of northern latitude, which embraces the
present states of North and South Carolina, Georgia,
[Alabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, with very little
exceptions, the whole state of Louisiana, and the territory of
East and West Florida, a considerable part of the state of
Missouri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiuhaha, &c. The
grantee had taken possession of the country, soon after he had
obtained his title, which he afterwards had conveyed to the
earl of Arundel. Henry lord Maltravers appears to have
obtained some aid from the province of Virginia in 1639, at
the desire of Charles I., for the settlement of Carolana, and
the country had since become the property of a Dr. Cox; yet,
at this time, there were two points only in which incipient
English settlements could be discerned; the one on the
northern shore of Albemarle Sound and the streams that flow
into it. The population of it was very thin, and the greatest
portion of it was on the north-east bank of Chowan river. The
settlers had come from that part of Virginia now known as the
County of Nansemond. ... They had been joined by a number of
Quakers and other sectaries, whom the spirit of intolerance
had driven from New England, and some emigrants from Bermudas.
... The other settlement of the English was at the mouth of
Cape Fear river; ... those who composed it had come thither
from New England in 1659. Their attention was confined to
rearing cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether the
assignees of Carolana ever surrendered the charter under which
it was held, nor whether it was considered as having become
vacated or obsolete by non-user, or by any other means."
F. X. Martin, History of North Carolina,
volume 1, chapter 5 and 7.
AMERICA: A. D. 1629.
The Royal Charter to the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay.
See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629, THE DORCHESTER COMPANY.
AMERICA: A. D. 1629-1631.
The Dutch occupation of the Delaware.
See DELAWARE: A. D. 1629-1631.
AMERICA: A. D. 1629-1632.
English Conquest and brief occupation of New France.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1628-1632.
AMERICA: A. D. 1632.
The Charter to Lord Baltimore and the founding of Maryland.
See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632, and A. D. 1633-1637.
AMERICA: A. D. 1638.
The planting of a Swedish Colony on the Delaware.
See DELAWARE: A. D. 1638-1640.
AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700.
The Buccaneers and their piratical warfare with Spain.
"The 17th century gave birth to a class of rovers wholly
distinct from any of their predecessors in the annals of the
world, differing as widely in their plans, organization and
exploits as in the principles that governed their actions. ...
After the native inhabitants of Haiti had been exterminated,
and the Spaniards had sailed farther west, a few adventurous
men from Normandy settled on the shores of the island, for the
purpose of hunting the wild bulls and hogs which roamed at
will through the forests. The small island of Tortugas was
their market; thither they repaired with their salted and
smoked meat, their hides, &c., and disposed of them in
exchange for powder, lead, and other necessaries. The places
where these semi-wild hunters prepared the slaughtered
carcases were called 'boucans,' and they themselves became
known as Buccaneers. Probably the world has never before or
since witnessed such an extraordinary association as theirs.
Unburdened by women-folk or children, these men lived in
couples, reciprocally rendering each other services, and
having entire community of property--a condition termed by
them matelotage, from the word 'matelot,' by which they
addressed one another. ... A man on joining the fraternity
completely merged his identity. Each member received a
nickname, and no attempt was ever made to inquire into his
antecedents. When one of their number married, he ceased to be
a buccaneer, having forfeited his membership by so civilized a
proceeding. He might continue to dwell on the coast, and to
hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'matelot'--as a Benedick
he had degenerated to a 'colonist.' ... Uncouth and lawless
though the buccaneers were, the sinister signification now
attaching to their name would never have been merited had it
not been for the unreasoning jealousy of the Spaniards. The
hunters were actually a source of profit to that nation, yet
from an insane antipathy to strangers the dominant race
resolved on exterminating the settlers. Attacked whilst
dispersed in pursuance of their avocations, the latter fell
easy victims; many of them were wantonly massacred, others
dragged into slavery. ... Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the
brethren of the coast' united their scattered forces, and a
war of horrible reprisals commenced.
{75}
Fresh troops arrived from Spain, whilst the ranks of the
buccaneers were filled by adventurers of all nations, allured
by love of plunder, and fired with indignation at the
cruelties of the aggressors. ... The Spaniards, utterly
failing to oust their opponents, hit upon a new expedient, so
short-sighted that it reflects but little credit on their
statesmanship. This was the extermination of the horned
cattle, by which the buccaneers derived their means of
subsistence; a general slaughter took place, and the breed was
almost extirpated. ... The puffed up arrogance of the Spaniard
was curbed by no prudential consideration; calling upon every
saint in his calendar, and raining curses on the heretical
buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate occupation,
and created wilfully a set of desperate enemies, who harassed
the colonial trade of an empire already betraying signs of
feebleness with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only
desisted when her commerce had been reduced to insignificance.
... Devoured by an undying hatred of their assailants, the
buccaneers developed into a new association--the freebooters."
C. H. Eden, The West Indies, chapter 3.
"The monarchs both of England and France, but especially the
former, connived at and even encouraged the freebooters [a
name which the pronunciation of French sailors transformed
into 'flibustiers,' while that corruption became Anglicized in
its turn and produced the word filibusters], whose services
could be obtained in time of war, and whose actions could be
disavowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, filibuster, and
sea-rover, were for the most part at leisure to hunt wild
cattle, and to pillage and massacre the Spaniards wherever
they found an opportunity. When not on some marauding
expedition, they followed the chase." The piratical buccaneers
were first organized under a leader in 1639, the islet of
Tortuga being their favorite rendezvous. "So rapid was the
growth of their settlements that in 1641 we find governors
appointed, and at San Christobal a governor-general named De
Poincy, in charge of the French filibusters in the Indies.
During that year Tortuga was garrisoned by French troops, and
the English were driven out, both from that islet and from
Santo Domingo, securing harborage elsewhere in the islands.
Nevertheless corsairs of both nations often made common cause.
... In [1654] Tortuga was again recaptured by the Spaniards,
but in 1660 fell once more into the hands of the French; and
in their conquest of Jamaica in 1655 the British troops were
reenforced by a large party of buccaneers." The first of the
more famous buccaneers, and apparently the most ferocious
among them all, was a Frenchman called François L'Olonnois,
who harried the coast of Central America between 1660-1665
with six ships and 700 men. At the same time another buccaneer
named Mansvelt, was rising in fame, and with him, as second in
command, a Welshman, Henry Morgan, who became the most
notorious of all. In 1668, Morgan attacked and captured the
strong town of Portobello, on the Isthmus, committing
indescribable atrocities. In 1671 he crossed the Isthmus,
defeated the Spaniards in battle and gained possession of the
great and wealthy city of Panama--the largest and richest in
the New World, containing at the time 30,000 inhabitants. The
city was pillaged, fired and totally destroyed. The exploits
of this ruffian and the stolen riches which he carried home to
England soon afterward, gained the honors of knighthood for
him, from the worthy hands of Charles II. In 1680, the
buccaneers under one Coxon again crossed the Isthmus, seized
Panama, which had been considerably rebuilt, and captured
there a Spanish fleet of four ships, in which they launched
themselves upon the Pacific. From that time their plundering
operations were chiefly directed against the Pacific coast.
Towards the close of the 17th century, the war between England
and France, and the Bourbon alliance of Spain with France,
brought about the discouragement, the decline and finally the
extinction of the buccaneer organization.
H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States: Central
America, volume 2, chapter 26-30.
ALSO IN
W. Thornbury, The Buccaneers.
A. O. Exquemelin, History of the Buccaneers.
J. Burney, History of the Buccaneers of Am.
See, also, JAMAICA: A. D. 1655-1796.
AMERICA: A. D. 1655.
Submission of the Swedes on the Delaware to the Dutch.
See DELAWARE: A. D. 1640-1656.
AMERICA: A. D. 1663.
The grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury,
and others.
See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1663-1670.
AMERICA: A. D. 1664.
English conquest of New Netherland.
See NEW YORK: A. D.1664.
AMERICA: A. D. 1673.
The Dutch reconquest of New Netherland.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.
AMERICA: A. D. 1673-1682.
Discovery and exploration of the Mississippi, by Marquette and
La Salle.
Louisiana named and possessed by the French.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1634-1673, and 1669-1687.
AMERICA: A. D. 1674.
Final surrender of New Netherland to the English.
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674.
AMERICA: A. D. 1681.
The proprietary grant to William Penn.
See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D,1681.
AMERICA: A. D. 1689-1697.
The first lnter-Colonial War: King Williams's War (The war of
the League of Augsburg).
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1689-1690; 1692-1697;
also, NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1694-1697.
AMERICA: A. D. 1690.
The first Colonial Congress.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1690;
also, CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1689-1690.
AMERICA: A. D. 1698-1712.
The French colonization of Louisiana.
Broad claims of France to the whole Valley of the Mississippi.
See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1698-1712.
AMERICA: A. D. 1700-1735.
The Spread of French occupation in the Mississippi Valley and
on the Lakes.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1700-1735.
AMERICA: A. D. 1702.
Union of the two Jerseys as a royal province.
See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1688-1738.
AMERICA: A. D. 1702-1713.
The Second Inter-Colonial War: Queen Anne's War (The War of
the Spanish Succession).
Final acquisition of Nova Scotia by the English.
See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1702-1710;
CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1711-1713.
AMERICA: A. D. 1713.
Division of territory between England and France by the Treaty
of Utrecht.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE) A. D. 1711-1713.
{76}
AMERICA: A. D. 1729.
End of the proprietary government in North Carolina.
See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1688-1729.
AMERICA: A. D. 1732.
The colonization of Georgia by General Oglethrope.
See GEORGIA: A. D. 1732-1739.
AMERICA: A. D. 1744-1748.
The Third Inter-Colonial War: King George's War (The War of
the Austrian Succession).
See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1744; 1745; and 1745-1748.
AMERICA: A. D. 1748-1760.
Unsettled boundary disputes of England and France.
The fourth and last inter-colonial war, called the French and
Indian War (The Seven Years War of Europe).
English Conquest of Canada.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1750-1753; 1760;
NOVA SCOTIA: A. D.1749-1755; 1755;
OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754; 1754; 1755;
CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1758-1760.
AMERICA: A. D. 1749.
Introduction of negro slavery into Georgia.
See GEORGIA: A. D. 1735-1749.
AMERICA: A. D. 1750-1753:
Dissensions among the English Colonies on the eve of the great
French War.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1750-1753.
AMERICA: A. D. 1754.
The Colonial Congress at Albany.
Franklin's Plan of Union.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1754.
AMERICA: A. D. 1763.
The Peace of Paris.
Canada, Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the
Mississippi (except New Orleans) ceded by France to Great
Britain.
West of the Mississippi and New Orleans to Spain.--Florida by
Spain to Great Britain.
See SEVEN YEARS WAR.
AMERICA: A. D. 1763-1764.
Pontiac's War.
See PONTIAC'S WAR.
AMERICA: A. D. 1763-1766.
Growing discontent of the English Colonies.
The question of taxation.
The Stamp Act and its repeal.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1760-1775, to 1766.
AMERICA: A. D. 1766-1769.
Spanish occupation of New Orleans and Western Louisiana, and
the revolt against it.
See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1766-1768, and 1769.
AMERICA: A. D. 1775-1783.
Independence of the English colonies achieved.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1775 (APRIL) to 1783 (SEPTEMBER).
AMERICA: A. D. 1776.
Erection of the Spanish Vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres.
See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.
AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1816.
Revolt, independence and Confederation of the Argentine
Provinces.
See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1806-1820.
AMERICA: A. D. 1818.
Chilean independence achieved.
See CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818.
AMERICA: A. D. 1820-1821.
Independence Acquired by Mexico and the Central American
States.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826,
and CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.
AMERICA: A. D. 1824.
Peruvian independence won at Ayacucho.
See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.
----------AMERICA: End----------
AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
Linguistic Classification.
In the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (for
1885-86, published in 1891), Major J. W. Powell, the Director
of the Bureau, has given a classification of the languages of
the North American aborigines based upon the most recent
investigations. The following is a list of families of speech,
or linguistic stocks, which are defined and named:
"Adaizan [identified since the publication of this list as
being but part of the Caddoan stock].
Algonquian.
Athapascan.
Attacapan.
Beothukan.
Caddoan.
Chimakuan.
Chimarikan.
Chimmesyan.
Chinookan.
Chitimachan.
Chumashan.
Coahuiltecan.
Copehan.
Costanoan.
Eskimauan.
Esselenian.
Iroquoian.
Kalapooian.
Karankawan.
Keresan.
Kiowan.
Kituanahan.
Koluschan.
Kulanapan.
Kusan.
Lutuamian.
Mariposan.
Moquelumnan.
Muskhogean.
Natchesan.
Palaihnihan.
Piman.
Pujunan.
Quoratean.
Salinan.
Salishan.
Sastean.
Shahaptian.
Shoshonean.
Siouan.
Skittagetan.
Takilman.
Tañoan.
Timuquanan.
Tonikan.
Tonkawan.
Uchean.
Waiilatpuan.
Wakashan.
Washoan.
Weitspekan.
Wishoskan.
Yokonan.
Yanan.
Yukian.
Yuman.
Zufiian."
These families are severally defined in the summary of
information given below, and the relations to them of all
tribes having any historical importance are shown by
cross-references and otherwise; but many other groupings and
associations, and many tribal names not scientifically
recognized, are likewise exhibited here, for the reason that
they have a significance in history and are the subjects of
frequent allusion in literature.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Abipones.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Abnakis, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.
"The Abnakis were called Taranteens by the English, and
Owenagungas by the New Yorkers. ... We must admit that a large
portion of the North American Indians were called Abnakis, if
not by themselves, at least by others. This word Abnaki is
found spelt Abenaques, Abenaki, Wapanachki, and Wabenakies by
different writers of various nations, each adopting the manner
of spelling according to the rules of pronunciation of their
respective native languages. ... The word generally received
is spelled thus, Abnaki, but it should be 'Wanbanaghi,' from
the Indian word 'wanbanban,' designating the people of the
Aurora Borealis, or in general, of the place where the sky
commences to appear white at the breaking of the day. ... It
has been difficult for different writers to determine the
number of nations or tribes comprehended under this word
Abnaki. It being a general word, by itself designates the
people of the east or northeast. ... We find that the word
Abnaki was applied in general, more or less, to all the
Indians of the East, by persons who were not much acquainted
with the aborigines of the country. On the contrary, the early
writers and others well acquainted with the natives of New
France and Acadia, and the Indians themselves, by Abnakis
always pointed out a particular nation existing north-west and
south of the Kennebec river, and they never designated any
other people of the Atlantic shore, from Cape Hatteras to
Newfoundland. ... The Abnakis had five great villages, two
amongst the French colonies, which must be the village of St.
Joseph or Sillery, and that of St. Francis de Sales, both in
Canada, three on the head waters, or along three rivers,
between Acadia and New England. These three rivers are the
Kennebec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco. ... The nation of
the Abnakis bear evident marks of having been an original
people in their name, manners, and language. They show a kind
of civilization which must be the effect of antiquity, and of
a past flourishing age."
E. Vetromile, The Abnaki Indians
(Maine Historical Society Collection, volume 6).
See, also, below:
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
{77}
For some account of the wars of the Abnakis, with the New
England colonies,
See
CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1689-1690, and 1692-1697;
NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1675 (JULY-SEPT.); 1702-1710, 1711-1713;
and NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1713-1730.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Absarokas, Upsarokas, or Crows.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Acawoios.
See below: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Acolhuas.
See MEXICO, A. D. 1325-1502.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Adais.
[Footnote: See Note, Appendix E.]
These Indians were a "tribe who, according to Dr. Sibley,
lived about the year 1800 near the old Spanish fort or mission
of Adaize, 'about 40 miles from Natchitoches, below the
Yattassees, on a lake called Lac Macdon, which communicates
with the division of Red River that passes by Bayou Pierre'
[Lewis and Clarke]. A vocabulary of about 250 words is all
that remains to us of their language, which according to the
collector, Dr. Sibley, 'differs from all others, and is so
difficult to speak or understand that no nation can speak ten
words of it. ... A recent comparison of this vocabulary by Mr.
Gatschet, with several Caddoan dialects, has led to the
discovery that a considerable percentage of the Adái words
have a more or less remote affinity with Caddoan, and he
regards it as a Caddoan dialect."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 45-46.
See preceding page.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Adirondacks.
"This is a term bestowed by the Iroquois, in derision, on the
tribes who appear, at an early day, to have descended the
Utawas river, and occupied the left banks of the St. Lawrence,
above the present site of Quebec, about the close of the 15th
century. It is said to signify men who eat trees, in allusion
to their using the bark of certain trees for food, when
reduced to straits, in their war excursions. The French, who
entered the St. Lawrence from the gulf, called the same people
Algonquins--a generic appellation, which has been long
employed and come into universal use, among historians and
philologists. According to early accounts, the Adirondacks had
preceded the Iroquois in arts and attainments."
H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, chapter 5.
See, also, below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Æsopus Indians.
See below: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Agniers.
Among several names which the Mohawks (see below: IROQUOIS)
bore in early colonial history was that of the Agniers.
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, volume 1, page 9,
foot-note.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Albaias.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Aleuts.
See below: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Algonquian (Algonkin) Family.
"About the period 1500-1600, those related tribes whom we now
know by the name of Algonkins were at the height of their
prosperity. They occupied the Atlantic coast from the Savannah
river on the south to the strait of Belle Isle on the north.
... The dialects of all these were related, and evidently at
some distant day had been derived from the same primitive
tongue. Which of them had preserved the ancient forms most
closely, it may be premature to decide positively, but the
tendency of modern studies has been to assign that place to
the Cree--the northernmost of all. We cannot erect a
genealogical tree of these dialects. ... We may, however,
group them in such a manner as roughly to indicate their
relationship. This I do"--in the following list:
"Cree.
Old Algonkin.
Montagnais.
Chipeway, Ottawa, Pottawattomie, Miami, Peoria, Pea,
Piankishaw, Kaskaskia, Menominee, Sac, Fox, Kikapoo.
Sheshatapoosh, Secoffee, Micmac, Melisceet, Etchemin, Abnaki.
Mohegan, Massachusetts, Shawnee, Minsi, Unami, Unalachtigo

[the last three named forming, together, the nation of the
Lenape or Delawares], Nanticoke, Powhatan, Pampticoke.
Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Sheyenne.
... All the Algonkin nations who dwelt north of the Potomac,
on the east shore of Chesapeake Bay, and in the basins of the
Delaware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship and an
identical origin, and were at times united into a loose,
defensive confederacy. By the western and southern tribes they
were collectively known as Wapanachkik--' those of the eastern
region'--which in the form Abnaki is now confined to the
remnant of a tribe in Maine. ... The members of the
confederacy were the Mohegans (Mahicanni) of the Hudson, who
occupied the valley of that river to the falls above the site
of Albany, the various New Jersey tribes, the Delawares proper
on the Delaware river and its branches, including the Minsi or
Monseys, among the mountains, the Nanticokes, between
Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, and the small tribe called
Canai, Kanawhas or Ganawese, whose towns were on tributaries
of the Potomac and Patuxent. ... Linguistically, the Mohegans
were more closely allied to the tribes of New England than to
those of the Delaware Valley. Evidently, most of the tribes of
Massachusetts and Connecticut were comparatively recent
offshoots of the parent stem on the Hudson, supposing the
course of migration had been eastward. ... The Nanticokes
occupied the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the ocean,
except its southern extremity, which appears to have been
under the control of the Powhatan tribe of Virginia."
D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and their Legends.
chapters 1-2.
"Mohegans, Munsees, Manhattans, Metöacs, and other affiliated
tribes and bands of Algonquin lineage, inhabited the banks of
the Hudson and the islands, bay and seaboard of New York,
including Long Island, during the early periods of the rise of
the Iroquois Confederacy. ... The Mohegans finally retired
over the Highlands east of them into the valley of the
Housatonic. The Munsees and Nanticokes retired to the Delaware
river and reunited with their kindred, the Lenapees, or modern
Delawares. The Manhattans, and numerous other bands and
sub-tribes melted away under the influence of liquor and died
in their tracks."
H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, chapter 5.
{78}
"On the basis of a difference in dialect, that portion of the
Algonquin Indians which dwelt in New England has been classed
in two divisions, one consisting of those who inhabited what
is now the State of Maine, nearly up to its western border,
the other consisting of the rest of the native population. The
Maine Indians may have been some 15,000 in number, or somewhat
less than a third of the native population of New England.
That portion of them who dwelt furthest towards the east were
known by the name of Etetchemins. The Abenaquis, including the
Tarratines, hunted on both sides of the Penobscot, and
westward as far as the Saco, if not quite to the Piscataqua.
The tribes found in the rest of New England were designated by
a greater variety of names. The home of the Penacook or
Pawtucket Indians was in the southeast corner of what is now
New Hampshire and the contiguous region of Massachusetts. Next
dwelt the Massachusetts tribe, along the bay of that name.
Then were found successively the Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, in
the southeasterly region of Massachusetts, and by Buzzard's
and Narragansett Bays; the Narragansetts, with a tributary
race called Nyantics in what is now the western part of the
State of Rhode Island; the Pequots, between the Narragansetts
and the river formerly called the Pequot River, now the
Thames; and the Mohegans, spreading themselves beyond the
River Connecticut. In the central region of Massachusetts were
the Nipmucks, or Nipnets; and along Cape Cod were the Nausets,
who appeared to have owed some fealty to the Pokanokets. The
New England Indians exhibited an inferior type of humanity.
... Though fleet and agile when excited to some occasional
effort, they were found to be incapable of continuous labor.
Heavy and phlegmatic, they scarcely wept or smiled."
J. G. Palfrey, Compendious History of New England,
book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).
"The valley of the 'Cahohatatea,' or Mauritius River [i. e.,
the Hudson River, as now named] at the time Hudson first
ascended its waters, was inhabited, chiefly, by two aboriginal
races of Algonquin lineage, afterwards known among the English
colonists by the generic names of Mohegans and Mincees. The
Dutch generally called the Mohegans, Mahicans; and the
Mincees, Sanhikans. These two tribes were subdivided into
numerous minor bands, each of which had a distinctive name.
The tribes on the east side of the river were generally
Mohegans; those on the west side, Mincees. They were
hereditary enemies. ... Long Island, or 'Sewan-hacky,' was
occupied by the savage tribe of Metowacks, which was
subdivided into various clans. ... Staten Island, on the
opposite side of the bay, was inhabited by the Monatons. ...
Inland, to the west, lived the Raritans and the Hackinsacks;
while the regions in the vicinity of the well-known
'Highlands,' south of Sandy Hook, were inhabited by a band or
sub-tribe called the Nevesincks or Navisinks. ... To the south
and west, covering the centre of New Jersey, were the
Aquamachukes and the Stankekans; while the valley of the
Delaware, northward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by
various tribes of the Lenape race. ... The island of the
Manhattans" was occupied by the tribe which received that name
(see MANHATTAN). On the shores of the river, above, dwelt the
Tappans, the Weckquaesgeeks, the Sint Sings, "whose chief
village was named Ossin-Sing, or 'the Place of Stones,'" the
Pachami, the Waorinacks, the Wappingers, and the
Waronawankongs. "Further north, and occupying the present
counties of Ulster and Greene, were the Minqua clans of
Minnesincks, Nanticokes, Mincees, and Delawares. These clans
had pressed onward from the upper valley of the Delaware. ...
They were generally known among the Dutch as the Æsopus
Indians."
J. R Brodhead, History of the State of New York, volume 1,
chapter 3
"The area formerly occupied by the Algonquian family was more
extensive than that of any other linguistic stock in North
America, their territory reaching from Labrador to the Rocky
Mountains, and from Churchill River of Hudson Bay as far south
at least as Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In the eastern
part of this territory was an area occupied by Iroquoian
tribes, surrounded on almost all sides by their Algonquian
neighbors. On the south the Algonquian tribes were bordered by
those of Iroquoian and Siouan (Catawba) stock, on the
southwest and west by the Muskhogean and Siouan tribes, and on
the northwest by the Kitunahan and the great Athapascan
families, while along the coast of Labrador and the eastern
shore of Hudson Bay they came in contact with the Eskimo, who
were gradually retreating before them to the north. In
Newfoundland they encountered the Beothukan family, consisting
of but a single tribe. A portion of the Shawnee at some early
period had separated from the main body of the tribe in
central Tennessee and pushed their way down to the Savannah
River in South Carolina, where, known as Savannahs, they
carried on destructive wars with the surrounding tribes until
about the beginning of the 18th century they were finally
driven out and joined the Delaware in the north. Soon
afterwards the rest of the tribe was expelled by the Cherokee
and Chicasa, who thenceforward claimed all the country
stretching north to the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho,
two allied tribes of this stock, had become separated from
their kindred on the north and had forced their way through
hostile tribes across the Missouri to the Black Hills country
of South Dakota, and more recently into Wyoming and Colorado,
thus forming the advance guard of the Algonquian stock in that
direction, having the Siouan tribes behind them and those of
the Shoshonean family in front. [The following are the]
principal tribes: Abnaki, Algonquin, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Conoy,
Cree, Delaware, Fox, Illinois, Kickapoo, Mahican, Massachuset,
Menominee, Miami, Micmac, Mohegan, Montagnais, Montauk,
Munsee, Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nauset, Nipmuc, Ojibwa,
Ottawa, Pamlico, Pennacook, Pequot, Piankishaw, Pottawotomi,
Powhatan, Sac, Shawnee, Siksika, Wampanoag, Wappinger. The
present number of the Algonquian stock is about 95,600, of
whom about 60,000 are in Canada and the remainder in the
United States."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 47-48.
ALSO IN
J. W. De Forest, History of the Indians of Connecticut.
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia
Americana, volume 2), intro., section 2.
S. G. Drake, Aboriginal Races of N. Am., book 2-3.
See, also, below:
DELAWARES; HORIKANS; SHAWANESE; SUSQUEHANNAS; OJIBWAS;
ILLINOIS.
For the Indian wars of New England,
See NEW ENGLAND:
A. D. 1637 (THE PEQUOT WAR);
A. D. 1674-1675 to 1676-1678 (KING PHILIP'S WAR).
See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.
{79}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Alibamus, or Alabamas.
See below: MUSKHOOEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Alleghans, or Allegewi, or Talligewi.
"The oldest tribe of the United States, of which there is a
distinct tradition, were the Alleghans. The term is
perpetuated in the principal chain of mountains traversing the
country. This tribe, at an antique period, had the seat of
their power in the Ohio Valley and its confluent streams,
which were the sites of their numerous towns and villages.
They appear originally to have borne the name of Alli, or
Alleg, and hence the names of Talligewi and Allegewi. (Trans.
Am. Phi. Society, volume 1.) By adding to the radical of this
word the particle 'hany' or 'ghany,' meaning river, they
described the principal scene of their residence--namely, the
Alleghany, or River of the Alleghans, now called Ohio. The
word Ohio is of Iroquois origin, and of a far later period;
having been bestowed by them after their conquest of the
country, in alliance with the Lenapees, or ancient Delawares.
(Phi. Trans.) The term was applied to the entire river, from
its confluence with the Mississippi, to its origin in the
broad spurs of the Alleghanies, in New York and Pennsylvania.
... There are evidences of antique labors in the alluvial
plains and valleys of the Scioto, Miami, and Muskingum, the
Wabash, Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Illinois, denoting that the
ancient Alleghans, and their allies and confederates,
cultivated the soil, and were semi-agriculturists. These
evidences have been traced, at late periods, to the fertile
table-lands of Indiana and Michigan. The tribes lived in fixed
towns, cultivating extensive fields of the zea-maize; and
also, as denoted by recent discoveries, ... of some species of
beans, vines, and esculents. They were, in truth, the mound
builders."
H. R. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the Indian
Tribes, part 5, page 133.
This conclusion, to which Mr. Schoolcraft had arrived, that
the ancient Alleghans or Tallegwi were the mound builders of
the Ohio Valley is being sustained by later investigators, and
seems to have become an accepted opinion among those of
highest authority. The Alleghans, moreover, are being
identified with the Cherokees of later times, in whom their
race, once supposed to be extinct, has apparently survived;
while the fact, long suspected, that the Cherokee language is
of the Iroquois family is being proved by the latest studies.
According to Indian tradition, the Alleghans were driven from
their ancient seats, long ago, by a combination against them
of the Lenape (Delawares) and the Mengwe (Iroquois). The route
of their migrations is being traced by the character of the
mounds which they built, and of the remains gathered from the
mounds. "The general movement [of retreat before the Iroquois
and Lenape] ... must have been southward, ... and the exit of
the Ohio mound-builders was, in all probability, up the
Kanawah Valley on the same line that the Cherokees appear to
have followed in reaching their historical locality. ... If
the hypothesis here advanced be correct, it is apparent that
the Cherokees entered the immediate valley of the Mississippi
from the northwest, striking it in the region of Iowa."
C. Thomas, The Problem of the Ohio Mounds (Bureau of
Ethnology, 1889).
ALSO IN The same,
Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the U. S.
(Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84).
J. Heckewelder, Account of the Indian Nations, chapter 1.
See, below:
CHEROKEES, and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY;
also AMERICA, PREHISTORIC.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Amahuacas.
See below: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Andastés.
See below: SUSQUEHANNAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Andesians.
"The term Andesians or Antesians, is used with geographical
rather than ethnological limits, and embraces a number of
tribes. First of these are the Cofan in Equador, east of
Chimborazo. They fought valiantly against the Spaniards, and
in times past killed many of the missionaries sent among them.
Now they are greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The
Huamaboya are their near neighbors. The Jivara, west of the
river Pastaca, are a warlike tribe, who, possibly through a
mixture of Spanish blood, have a European cast of countenance
and a beard. The half Christian Napo or Quijo and their
peaceful neighbors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The
Yamco, living on the lower Chambiva and crossing the Marañon,
wandering as far as Saryacu, have a clearer complexion. The
Pacamora and the Yuguarzongo live on the Maranon, where it
leaves its northerly course and bends toward the east. The
Cochiquima live on the lower Yavari; the Mayoruna, or Barbudo,
on the middle Ucayali beside the Campo and Cochibo, the most
terrible of South American Indians; they dwell in the woods
between the Tapiche and the Marañon, and like the Jivaro have
a beard. The Pano, who formerly dwelt in the territory of
Lalaguna, but who now live in villages on the upper Ucayali,
are Christians. ... Their language is the principal one on the
river, and it is shared by seven other tribes called
collectively by the missionaries Manioto or Mayno. ... Within
the woods on the right bank live the Amahuaca and Shacaya. On
the north they join the Remo, a powerful tribe who are
distinguished from all the others by the custom of tattooing.
Outside this Pano linguistic group stand the Campa, Campo, or
Antis on the east slope of the Peruvian Cordillera at the
source of the Rio Beni and its tributaries. The Chontaquiros,
or Piru, now occupy almost entirely the bank of the Ucayali
below the Pachilia. The Mojos or Moxos live in the Bolivian
province of Moxos with the small tribes of the Baure, Itonama,
Pacaguara. A number of smaller tribes belonging to the
Antesian group need not be enumerated. The late Professor
James Orton described the Indian tribes of the territory
between Quito and the river Amazon. The Napo approach the type
of the Quichua. ... Among all the Indians of the Provincia del
Oriente, the tribe of Jivaro is one of the largest. These
people are divided into a great number of sub-tribes. All of
these speak the clear musical Jivaro language. They are
muscular, active men. ... The Morona are cannibals in the full
sense of the word. ... The Campo, still very little known, is
perhaps the largest Indian tribe in Eastern Peru, and,
according to some, is related to the Inca race, or at least
with their successors. They are said to be cannibals, though
James Orton does not think this possible. ... The nearest
neighbors of the Campo are the Chontakiro, or Chontaquiro, or
Chonquiro, called also Piru, who, according to Paul Marcoy,
are said to be of the same origin with the Campo; but the
language is wholly different. ... Among the Pano people are
the wild Conibo; they are the most interesting, but are
passing into extinction."
The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor),
volume 6, pages 227-231.
{80}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Apache Group [Footnote: See Note, Appendix E.]
Under the general name of the Apaches "I include all the
savage tribes roaming through New Mexico, the north-western
portion of Texas, a small part of northern Mexico, and
Arizona. ... Owing to their roving proclivities and incessant
raids they are led first in one direction and then in another.
In general terms they may be said to range about as follows:
The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni, consisting of three tribes,
the Comanches proper, the Yamparacks, and Tenawas, inhabiting
northern Texas, eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila,
Durango, and portions of south-western New Mexico, by language
allied to the Shoshone family; the Apaches, who call
themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' and whose tribal
divisions are the Chiricaguis, Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileños,
Lipanes, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbreños, Natages, Pelones,
Pinaleños, Tejuas, Tontos, and Vaqueros, roaming over New
Mexico, Arizona, North-western Texas, Chihuahua and Sonora,
and who are allied by language to the great Tinneh family; the
Navajos, or Tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves,
having linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with
which they are sometimes classed, living in and around the
Sierra de los Mimbres; the Mojaves, occupying both banks of
the Colorado in Mojave Valley; the Hualapais, near the
head-waters of Bill Williams Fork; the Yumas, on the east bank
of the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Gila; the
Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais, are sometimes included in
the Apache nation, ranging through the Mogollon Mountains; and
the Yampais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Rio
Hassayampa. ... The Apache country is probably the most desert
of all. ... In both mountain and desert the fierce, rapacious
Apache, inured from childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat
and cold, finds safe retreat. ... The Pueblos ... are nothing
but partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches."
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 5.
Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the whole of
the Apache Group, confining the name Apache (that being the
Yuma word for "fighting men") to the one tribe so called. "It
has also been called the Katchan or Cuchan stock."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 109.
See, also, below: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Apalaches.
"Among the aboriginal tribes of the United States perhaps none
is more enigmatical than the Apalaches. They are mentioned as
an important nation by many of the early French and Spanish
travellers and historians, their name is preserved by a bay
and river on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the
great eastern coast range of mountains, and has been applied
by ethnologists to a family of cognate nations that found
their hunting grounds from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and
from the Ohio river to the Florida Keys; yet, strange to say,
their own race and place have been but guessed at." The
derivation of the name of the Apalaches "has been a 'questio
vexata' among Indianologists." We must "consider it an
indication of ancient connections with the southern continent,
and in itself a pure Carib word. 'Apáliché' in the Tamanaca
dialect of the Guaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,'
and the earliest application of the name in the northern
continent was as the title of the chief of a country, 'l'homme
par excellence,' and hence, like very many other Indian tribes
(Apaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjects assumed by
eminence the proud appellation of 'The Men.' ... We have ...
found that though no general migration took place from the
continent southward, nor from the islands northward, yet there
was a considerable intercourse in both directions; that not
only the natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and
Yucatan, but also numbers of the Guaranay stem of the southern
continent, the Caribs proper, crossed the Straits of Florida
and founded colonies on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that
their customs and language became to a certain extent grafted
upon those of the early possessors of the soil; and to this
foreign language the name Apalache belongs. As previously
stated, it was used as a generic title, applied to a
confederation of many nations at one time under the domination
of one chief, whose power probably extended from the Alleghany
mountains on the north to the shore of the Gulf; that it
included tribes speaking a tongue closely akin to the Choktah
is evident from the fragments we have remaining. ... The
location of the tribe in after years is very uncertain. Dumont
placed them in the northern part of what is now Alabama and
Georgia, near the mountains that bear their name. That a
portion of them did live in this vicinity is corroborated by
the historians of South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore,
in 1703, found them 'between the head-waters of the Savannah
and Altamaha.' ... According to all the Spanish authorities,
on the other hand, they dwelt in the region of country between
the Suwannee and Appalachicola rivers--yet must not be
confounded with the Apalachicolos. ... They certainly had a
large and prosperous town in this vicinity, said to contain
1,000 warriors. ... I am inclined to believe that these were
different branches of the same confederacy. ... In the
beginning of the 18th century they suffered much from the
devastations of the English, French and Creeks. ... About the
time Spain regained possession of the soil, they migrated to
the West and settled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River. Here
they had a village numbering about 50 souls."
D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula,
chapter 2.
See, also, below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Apelousas.
See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Araicu.
See below: GUCK ON COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Arapahoes.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Araucanians.
See CHILE.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Arawaks, or Arauacas.
See below: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Arecunas.
See below: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Arikaras.
See below: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Arkansas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Assiniboins.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Athapascan Family.
Chippewyans.
Tinneh.
Sarcees [Footnote: See Note, Appendix E.]
"This name [Athapascans or Athabascans] has been applied to a
class of tribes who are situated north of the great Churchill
river, and north of the source of the fork of the
Saskatchawine, extending westward till within about 150 miles
of the Pacific Ocean. ... The name is derived, arbitrarily,
from Lake Athabasca, which is now more generally called the
Lake of the Hills. Surrounding this lake extends the tribe of
the Chippewyans, a people so-called by the Kenistenos and
Chippewas, because they were found to be clothed, in some
primary encounter, in the scanty garb of the fisher's skin.
... We are informed by Mackenzie that the territory occupied
by the Chippewyans extends between the parallels of 60° and
65° North and longitudes from 100° to 110° West."
H. R. Schoolcraft, Information Respecting the Indian
Tribes, part 5, page 172.
{81}
"The Tinneh may be divided into four great families of
nations; namely, the Chippewyans, or Athabascas, living
between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains; the Tacullies, or
Carriers, of New Caledonia or North-western British America;
the Kutchins, occupying both banks of the Upper Yukon and its
tributaries, from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and
the Kenai, inhabiting the interior from the lower Yukon to
Copper River."
H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States,
chapter 2.
"The Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent region may be
divided into two groups. ...
1. Tinneh--Chippewyans of
authors. ... Father Petitot discusses the terms Athabaskans,
Chippewayans, Montagnais, and Tinneh as applied to this group
of Indians. ... This great family includes a large number of
American tribes extending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie
south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches and Navajos belong
to it, and the family seems to intersect the continent of
North America in a northerly and southerly direction,
principally along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains. ... The
designation [Tinneh] proposed by Messrs. Ross and Gibbs has
been accepted by most modern ethnologists. ...
2. T'linkets, which family includes the Yakutats and other
groups.
W. H. Dall, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest
(Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 1).
"Wherever found, the members of this group present a certain
family resemblance. In appearance they are tall and strong,
the forehead low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes
slightly oblique, the nose prominent but wide toward the base,
the mouth large, the hands and feet small. Their strength and
endurance are often phenomenal, but in the North, at least,
their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty.
Intellectually they rank below most of their neighbors, and
nowhere do they appear as fosterers of the germs of
civilization. Where, as among the Navajos, we find them having
some repute for the mechanical arts, it turns out that this is
owing to having captured and adopted the members of more
gifted tribes. ... Agriculture was not practised either in the
north or south, the only exception being the Navajos, and with
them the inspiration came from other stocks. ... The most
cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said
to signify 'large cornfields,' from their extensive
agriculture. When the Spaniards first met them in 1541 they
were tillers of the soil, erected large granaries for their
crops, irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or
acequias, and lived in substantial dwellings, partly
underground; but they had not then learned the art of weaving
the celebrated 'Navajo blankets,' that being a later
acquisition of their artisans."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 69-72.
See, above, APACHE GROUP, and BLACKFEET.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Atsinas (Caddoes).
See Note, Appendix E.
See below: BLACKFEET.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Attacapan Family.
"Derivation: From a Choctaw word meaning 'man-eater.' Little
is known of the tribe, the language of which forms the basis
of the present family. The sole knowledge possessed by
Gallatin was derived from a vocabulary and some scanty
information furnished by Dr. John Sibley, who collected his
material in the year 1805. Gallatin states that the tribe was
reduced to 50 men. ... Mr. Gatschet collected some 2,000 words
and a considerable body of text. His vocabulary differs
considerably from the one furnished by Dr. Sibley and
published by Gallatin. ... The above material seems to show
that the Attacapa language is distinct from all others, except
possibly the Chitimachan."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 57.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Aymaras.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Aztecs.
See below: MAYAS;
also MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502;
and AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE WRITING.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Bakairi.
See below: CARIBS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Balchitas.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Bannacks.
See below: SNOSHONEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Barbudo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Baré.
See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Baure.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Beothukan Family.
The Beothuk were a tribe, now extinct, which is believed to
have occupied the whole of Newfoundland at the time of its
discovery. What is known of the language of the Beothuk
indicates no relationship to any other American tongue.
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, page 57.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Biloxis.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Blackfeet, or Siksikas.
See Note, Appendix E.
"The tribe that wandered the furthest from the primitive home
of the stock [the Algonquian] were the Blackfeet, or Sisika,
which word has this signification. It is derived from their
earlier habitat in the valley of the Red river of the north,
where the soil was dark and blackened their moccasins. Their
bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegan Indians. Half
a century ago they were at the head of a confederacy which
embraced these and also the Sarcee (Tinné) and the Atsina
(Caddo) nations, and numbered about 30,000 souls. They have an
interesting mythology and an unusual knowledge of the
constellations."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 79.
SEE above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
And, below: FLATHEADS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Blood, or Kenai Indians.
See above: BLACKFEET.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Botocudos.
See below: TUPI.--GUARANI.--TUPUYAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Brulé:
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Caddoan Family.
See below: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY;
See, also, TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cakchiquels.
See below: QUICHES, and MAYAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Calusa.
See below: TUMUQUANAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cambas, or Campo, or Campa.
See above: ANDESIANS;
also, BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cañares.
See ECUADOR.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Canas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Canichanas.
See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
{82}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Caniengas.
See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cariay.
See below: GUCK OR COCO Group.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Caribs and their Kindred.
"The warlike and unyielding character of these people, so
different from that of the pusillanimous nations around them,
and the wide scope of their enterprises and wanderings, like
those of the nomad tribes of the Old World, entitle them to
distinguished attention. ... The traditional accounts of their
origin, though of course extremely vague, are yet capable of
being verified to a great degree by geographical facts, and
open one of the rich veins of curious inquiry and speculation
which abound in the New World. They are said to have migrated
from the remote valleys embosomed in the Apalachian mountains.
The earliest accounts we have of them represent them with
weapons in their hands, continually engaged in wars, winning
their way and shifting their abode, until, in the course of
time, they found themselves at the extremity of Florida. Here,
abandoning the northern continent, they passed over to the
Lucayos [Bahamas], and thence gradually, in the process of
years, from island to island of that vast verdant chain, which
links, as it were, the end of Florida to the coast of Paria,
on the southern continent. The archipelago extending from
Porto Rico to Tobago was their stronghold, and the island of
Guadaloupe in a manner their citadel. Hence they made their
expeditions, and spread the terror of their name through all
the surrounding countries. Swarms of them landed upon the
southern continent, and overran some parts of terra firma.
Traces of them have been discovered far in the interior of
that vast country through which flows the Oroonoko. The Dutch
found colonies of them on the banks of the Ikouteka, which
empties into the Surinam; along the Esquibi, the Maroni, and
other rivers of Guayana; and in the country watered by the
windings of the Cayenne."
W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus, book 6, chapter 3
(volume 1).
"To this account [substantially as given above] of the origin
of the Insular Charaibes, the generality of historians have
given their assent; but there are doubts attending it that are
not easily solved. If they migrated from Florida, the
imperfect state and natural course of their navigation induce
a belief that traces of them would have been found on those
islands which are near to the Florida shore; let the natives
of the Bahamas, when discovered by Columbus, were evidently a
similar people to those of Hispaniola. Besides, it is
sufficiently known that there existed anciently many numerous
and powerful tribes of Charaibes on the southern peninsula,
extending from the river Oronoko to Essequebe, and throughout
the whole province of Surinam, even to Brazil, some of which
still maintain their independency. ... I incline therefore to
the opinion of Martyr, and conclude that the islanders were
rather a colony from the Charaibes of South America, than from
any nation of the North. Rochefort admits that their own
traditions referred constantly to Guiana."
B. Edwards, History of British Colonies in the West
Indies, book 1, chapter 2.
"The Carabisce, Carabeesi, Charaibes, Caribs, or Galibis,
originally occupied [in Guiana] the principal rivers, but as
the Dutch encroached upon their possessions they retired
inland, and are now daily dwindling away. According to Mr.
Hillhouse, they could formerly muster nearly 1,000 fighting
men, but are now [1855] scarcely able to raise a tenth part of
that number. ... The smaller islands of the Caribbean Sea were
formerly thickly populated by this tribe, but now not a trace of
them remains."
H. G. Dalton, History of British Guiana, volume 1, chapter 1.
E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, chapter 6.
"Recent researches have shown that the original home of the
stock was south of the Amazon, and probably in the highlands
at the head of the Tapajoz river. A tribe, the Bakairi, is
still resident there, whose language is a pure and archaic
form of the Carib tongue."
D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples, page 268.
"Related to the Caribs stand a long list of small tribes ...
all inhabitants of the great primeval forest in and near
Guiana. They may have characteristic differences, but none
worthy of mention are known. In bodily appearance, according
to all accounts, these relatives of the Caribs are beautiful.
In Georgetown the Arauacas [or Arawaks] are celebrated for
their beauty. They are slender and graceful, and their
features handsome and regular, the face having a Grecian
profile, and the skin being of a reddish cast. A little
farther inland we find the Macushi [or Macusis], with a
lighter complexion and a Roman nose. These two types are
repeated in other tribes, except in the Tarumi, who are
decidedly ugly. In mental characteristics great similarity
prevails."
The Standard Natural History
(J. S. Kingsley, ed.), page 237.
"The Arawaks occupied on the continent the area of the modern
Guiana, between the Corentyn and the Pomeroon rivers, and at
one time all the West Indian Islands. From some of them they
were early driven by the Caribs, and within 40 years of the
date of Columbus' first voyage the Spanish had exterminated
nearly all on the islands. Their course of migration had been
from the interior of Brazil northward; their distant relations
are still to be found between the headwaters of the Paraguay
and Schingu rivers."
D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples, page 268-269.
"The Kapohn (Acawoios, Waikas, &c.) claim kindred with the
Caribs. ... The Acawoios, though resolute and determined, are
less hasty and impetuous than the Caribs. ... According to
their tradition, one of their hordes removed [to the Upper
Demerera] ... from the Masaruni. The Parawianas, who
originally dwelt on the Demerera, having been exterminated by
the continual incursions of the Caribs, the Waika-Acawoios
occupied their vacant territory. ... The Macusis ... are
supposed by some to have formerly inhabited the banks of the
Orinoco. ... As they are industrious and unwarlike, they have
been the prey of every savage tribe around them. The
Wapisianas are supposed to have driven them northward and
taken possession of their country. The Brazilians, as well as
the Caribs, Acawoios, &c., have long been in the habit of
enslaving them. ... The Arecunas have been accustomed to
descend from the higher lands and attack the Macusis. ... This
tribe is said to have formerly dwelt on the banks of the
Uaupes or Ucayari, a tributary of the Rio Negro. ... The
Waraus appear to have been the most ancient inhabitants of the
land. Very little, however, can be gleaned from them
respecting their early history. ... The Tivitivas, mentioned
by Raleigh, were probably a branch of the Waraus, whom he
calls Quarawetes."
W. H. Brett, Indian Tribes of Guiana,
part 2, chapter 13.
{83}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Caripuna.
See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cat Nation, or Eries.
See below: HURONS, &c.,
and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Catawbas, or Kataba.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY;
also, TIMUQUANAN.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cayugas.
See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chancas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chapas, or Chapanecs.
See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cherokees.
"The Cherokee tribe has long been a puzzling factor to
students of ethnology and North American languages. Whether to
be considered an abnormal offshoot from one of the well-known
Indian stocks or families of North America, or the remnant of
some undetermined or almost extinct family which has merged
into another, appear to be questions yet unsettled."
C. Thomas, Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the
United States (Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, 1883-4).
Facts which tend to identify the Cherokees with the ancient
"mound-builders" of the Ohio Valley--the Alleghans or
Talligewi of Indian tradition--are set forth by Professor Thomas
in a later paper, on the Problem of the Ohio Mounds, published
by the Bureau of Ethnology in 1889 [see above: ALLEGHANS] and
in a little book published in 1890, entitled "The Cherokees in
Pre-Columbian Times." "The Cherokee nation has probably
occupied a more prominent place in the affairs and history of
what is now the United States of America, since the date of
the early European settlements, than any other tribe, nation,
or confederacy of Indians, unless it be possible to except the
powerful and warlike league of the Iroquois or Six Nations of
New York. It is almost certain that they were visited at a
very early period [1540] following the discovery of the
American continent by that daring and enthusiastic Spaniard,
Fernando de Soto. ... At the time of the English settlement of
the Carolinas the Cherokees occupied a diversified and
well-watered region of country of large extent upon the waters
of the Catawba, Broad, Saluda, Keowee, Tugaloo, Savannah, and
Coosa rivers on the east and south, and several tributaries of
the Tennessee on the north and west. ... In subsequent years,
through frequent and long continued conflicts with the ever
advancing white settlements, and the successive treaties
whereby the Cherokees gradually yielded portions of their
domain, the location and names of their towns were continually
changing until the final removal of the nation [1836-1839]
west of the Mississippi. ... This removal turned the Cherokees
back in the calendar of progress and civilization at least a
quarter of a century. The hardships and exposures of the
journey, coupled with the fevers and malaria of a radically
different climate, cost the lives of perhaps 10 per cent. of
their total population. The animosities and turbulence born of
the treaty of 1835 not only occasioned the loss of many lives,
but rendered property insecure, and in consequence diminished
the zeal and industry of the entire community in its
accumulation. A brief period of comparative quiet, however,
was again characterized by an advance toward a higher
civilization. Five years after their removal we find from the
report of their agent that they are again on the increase in
population. ... With the exception of occasional
drawbacks--the result of civil feuds--the progress of the
nation in education, industry and civilization continued until
the outbreak of the rebellion. At this period, from the best
attainable information, the Cherokees numbered 21,000 souls.
The events of the war brought to them more of desolation and
ruin than perhaps to any other community. Raided and sacked
alternately, not only by the Confederates and Union forces,
but by the vindictive ferocity and hate of their own factional
divisions, their country became a blackened and desolate
waste. ... The war over, and the work of reconstruction
commenced, found them numbering 14,000 impoverished,
heart-broken, and revengeful people. ... To-day their country
is more prosperous than ever. They number 22,000, a greater
population than they have had at any previous period, except
perhaps just prior to the date of the treaty of 1835, when
those east added to those west of the Mississippi are stated
to have aggregated nearly 25,000 people. To-day they have
2,300 scholars attending 75 schools, established and supported
by themselves at an annual expense to the nation of nearly
$100,000. To-day, 13,000 of their people can read and 18,000
can speak the English language. To-day, 5,000 brick, frame and
log-houses are occupied by them, and they have 64 churches
with a membership of several thousand. They cultivate 100,000
acres of land and have an additional 150,000 fenced. ... They
have a constitutional form of government predicated upon that
of the United States. As a rule their laws are wise and
beneficent and are enforced with strictness and justice. ...
The present Cherokee population is of a composite character.
Remnants of other nations or tribes [Delawares, Shawnees,
Creeks, Natchez] have from time to time been absorbed and
admitted to full participation in the benefits of Cherokee
citizenship."
C. C. Royce, The Cherokee Nation of Indians (Fifth
Annual Reportt of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84).
This elaborate paper by Mr. Royce is a narrative in detail of
the official relations of the Cherokees with the colonial and
federal governments, from their first treaty with South
Carolina, in 1721, down to the treaty of April 27, 1868.--"As
early as 1798 Barton compared the Cheroki language with that
of the Iroquois and stated his belief that there was a
connection between them. ... Mr. Hale was the first to give
formal expression to his belief in the affinity of the Cheroki
to Iroquois. Recently extensive Cheroki vocabularies have come
into possession of the Bureau of Ethnology, and a careful
comparison of them with ample Iroquois material has been made
by Mr Hewitt. The result is convincing proof of the
relationship of the two languages."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, page 77.
See Note, Appendix: E.
ALSO IN
S. G. Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America, book
4, chapter 13-16.
See, above: ALLEGHANS.
See, also, for an account of the Cherokee War of 1759-1761,
SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761; and for "Lord Dunmore's
War," OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cheyennes, or Sheyennes.
See above; ALGONQUIAN FAMILY
{84}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chibchas.
The most northerly group of the tribes of the Andes "are the
Cundinamarca of the table lands of Bogota. At the time of the
conquest the watershed of the Magdalena was occupied by the
Chibcha, or, as they were called by the Spaniards, Muyscas. At
that time the Chibcha were the most powerful of all the
autochthonous tribes, had a long history behind them, were
well advanced toward civilization, to which numerous
antiquities bear witness. The Chibcha of to-day no longer
speak the well-developed and musical language of their
forefathers. It became extinct about 1730, and it can now only
be inferred from existing dialects of it; these are the
languages of the Turiero, a tribe dwelling north of Bogota,
and of the Itoco Indians who live in the neighborhood of the
celebrated Emerald mines of Muzo."
The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor)
volume 6, page 215.
"As potters and goldsmiths they [the Chibcha] ranked among the
finest on the continent."
D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples, page 272.
See, also, COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1536-1731.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chicasas.
See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY;
also, LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chichimecs.
See MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chimakuan Family.
"The Chimakum are said to have been formerly one of the
largest and most powerful tribes of Puget Sound. Their
warlike habits early tended to diminish their numbers, and
when visited by Gibbs in 1854 they counted only about 70
individuals. This small remnant occupied some 15 small lodges
on Port Townsend Bay."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 62.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chimarikan Family.
"According to Powers, this family was represented, so far as
known, by two tribes in California, one the Chi-mál-a-kwe,
living on New River, a branch of the Trinity, the other the
Chimariko, residing upon the Trinity itself from Burnt Ranch
up to the mouth of North Fork, California. The two tribes are
said to have been as numerous formerly as the Hupa, by whom
they were overcome and nearly exterminated. Upon the arrival
of the Americans only 25 of the Chimalakwe were left."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 63.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chinantecs.
See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chinookan Family.
"The banks of the Columbia, from the Grand Dalles to its
mouth, belong to the two branches of the Tsinuk [or Chinook]
nation, which meet in the neighborhood of the Kowlitz River,
and of which an almost nominal remnant is left. ... The
position of the Tsinuk previous to their depopulation was, as
at once appears, most important, occupying both sides of the
great artery of Oregon for a distance of 200 miles, they
possessed the principal thoroughfare between the interior and
the ocean, boundless resources of provisions of various kinds,
and facilities for trade almost unequalled on the Pacific."
G. Gibbs, Tribes of West Washington and N. W. Oregon
(Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 1),
page 164.
See, also, below: FLATHEADS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chippewas.
See below: OJIBWAS;
and above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chippewyans.
See below: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Choctaws.
See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chontals and Popolocas.
"According to the census of 1880 there were 31,000 Indians in
Mexico belonging to the Familia Chontal. No such family
exists. The word 'chontalli' in the Nahuatl language means
simply 'stranger,' and was applied by the Nahuas to any people
other than their own. According to the Mexican statistics, the
Chontals are found in the states of Mexico, Puebla, Oaxaca,
Guerrero, Tabasco, Guatemala and Nicaragua. A similar term is
'popoloca,' which in Nahuatl means a coarse fellow, one
speaking badly, that is, broken Nahuatl. The Popolocas have
also been erected into an ethnic entity by some ethnographers,
with as little justice as the Chontallis. They are stated to
have lived in the provinces of Puebla, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz,
Mechoacan and Guatemala."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 146-153.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chontaquiros.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Chumashan Family.
"Derivation: From Chumash, the name of the Santa Rosa
Islanders. The several dialects of this family have long been
known under the group or family name, 'Santa Barbara,' which
seems first to have been used in a comprehensive sense by
Latham in 1856, who included under it three languages, viz.:
Santa Barbara, Santa Inez, and San Luis Obispo. The term has
no special pertinence as a family designation, except from the
fact that the Santa Barbara Mission, around which one of the
dialects of the family was spoken, is perhaps more widely
known than any of the others."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 67.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cliff-dwellers.
See AMERICA: PREHISTORIC.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Coahuiltecan Family.
"Derivation: From the name of the Mexican State Coahuila. This
family appears to have included numerous tribes in
southwestern Texas and in Mexico. ... A few Indians still
survive who speak one of the dialects of this family, and in
1886 Mr. Gatschet collected vocabularies of two tribes, the
Comecrudo and Cotoname, who live on the Rio Grande, at Las
Prietas, State of Tamaulipas."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 68.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Coajiro, or Guajira.
"An exceptional position is taken, in many respects, by the
Coajiro, or Guajira, who live on the peninsula of the same
name on the northwestern boundary of Venezuela. Bounded on all
sides by so-called civilized peoples, this Indian tribe is
known to have maintained its independence, and acquired the
well-deserved reputation for cruelty, a tribe which, in many
respects, can be classed with the Apaches and Comanches of New
Mexico, the Araucanians of Chili, and the Guaycara and Guarani
on the Parana. The Coajiro are mostly large, with
chestnut-brown complexion and black, sleek hair. While all the
other coast tribes have adopted the Spanish language, the
Coajiro have preserved their own speech. They are the especial
foes of the other peoples. No one is given entrance into their
land, and they live with their neighbors, the Venezuelans, in
constant hostilities. They have fine horses, which they know
how to ride excellently. ... They have numerous herds of
cattle. ... They follow agriculture a little."
The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor),
volume 6, page 243.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cochibo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cochiquima.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Coco Group.
See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Coconoons.
See below: MARIPOSAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cofan.
See above: ANDESIANS.
{85}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Collas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Comanches.
See below: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY,
and KIOWAN FAMILY;
and above: APACHE GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Conestogas.
See below: SUSQUEHANNAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Conibo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Conoys.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Copehan Family.
"The territory of the Copehan family is bounded on the north
by Mount Shasta and the territory of the Sastean and Lutuamian
families, on the east by the territory of the Palaihnihan,
Yanan, and Punjunan families, and on the south by the bays of
San Pablo and Suisun and the lower waters of the Sacramento."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
page 69.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Costanoan Family.
"Derivation: From the Spanish costano, 'coast-men.' Under this
group name Latham included five tribes ... which were under
the supervision of the Mission Dolores. ... The territory of
the Costanoan family extends from the Golden Gate to a point
near the southern end of Monterey Bay. ... The surviving
Indians of the once populous tribes of this family are now
scattered over several counties and probably do not number,
all told, over 30 individuals, as was ascertained by Mr.
Henshaw in 1888. Most of these are to be found near the
towns of Santa Cruz and Monterey."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
p, 71.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Creek Confederacy, Creek Wars.
See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY;
also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813-1814 (AUGUST-APRIL);
and FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Crees.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Croatans,
See AMERICA: A. D. 1587-1590.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Crows (Upsarokas, or Absarokas).
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cuatos.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cunimaré.
See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Cuyriri or Kiriri.
See below: GUCK on Coco GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Dakotas, or Dacotahs, or Dahcotas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Delawares, or Lenape.
"The proper name of the Delaware Indians was and is Lenapé (a
as in father, é as a in mate). ... The Lenape were divided
into three sub-tribes:
1. The Minsi, Monseys, Montheys, Munsees, or Minisinks.
2. The Unami or Wonameys.
3. The Unalachtigo.
No explanation of these designations will be
found in Heckewelder or the older writers. From
investigations among living Delawares, carried out at my
request by Mr. Horatio Hale, it is evident that they are
wholly geographical, and refer to the location of these
sub-tribes on the Delaware river. ... The Minsi lived in the
mountainous region at the head waters of the Delaware, above
the Forks or junction of the Lehigh river. ... The Unamis'
territory on the right bank of the Delaware river extended
from the Lehigh Valley southward. It was with them and their
southern neighbors, the Unalachtigos, that Penn dealt for the
land ceded to him in the Indian deed of 1682. The Minsis did
not take part in the transaction, and it was not until 1737
that the Colonial authorities treated directly with the latter
for the cession of their territory. The Unalachtigo or Turkey
totem had its principal seat on the affluents of the Delawares
near where Wilmington now stands."
D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends,
chapter 3.
"At the ... time when
William Penn landed in Pennsylvania, the Delawares had been
subjugated and made women by the Five Nations. It is well
known that, according to that Indian mode of expression, the
Delawares were henceforth prohibited from making war, and
placed under the sovereignty of the conquerors, who did not
even allow sales of land, in the actual possession of the
Delawares, to be valid without their approbation. William
Penn, his descendants, and the State of Pennsylvania,
accordingly, always purchased the right of possession from the
Delawares, and that of Sovereignty from the Five Nations. ...
The use of arms, though from very different causes, was
equally prohibited to the Delawares and to the Quakers. Thus
the colonization of Pennsylvania and of West New Jersey by the
British, commenced under the most favorable auspices. Peace
and the utmost harmony prevailed for more than sixty years
between the whites and the Indians; for these were for the
first time treated, not only justly, but kindly, by the
colonists. But, however gradually and peaceably their lands
might have been purchased, the Delawares found themselves at
last in the same situation as all the other Indians, without
lands of their own, and therefore without means of
subsistence. They were compelled to seek refuge on the waters
of the Susquehanna, as tenants at will, on lands belonging to
their hated conquerors, the Five Nations. Even there and on
the Juniata they were encroached upon. ... Under those
circumstances, many of the Delawares determined to remove west
of the Alleghany Mountains, and, about the year 1740-50,
obtained from their ancient allies and uncles, the Wyandots,
the grant of a derelict tract of land lying principally on the
Muskingum. The great body of the nation was still attached to
Pennsylvania. But the grounds of complaint increased. The
Delawares were encouraged by the western tribes, and by the
French, to shake off the yoke of the Six Nations, and to join
in the war against their allies, the British. The frontier
settlements of Pennsylvania were accordingly attacked both by
the Delawares and the Shawnoes. And, although peace was made
with them at Easton in in 1758, and the conquest of Canada put
an end to the general war, both the Shawnoes and Delawares
removed altogether in 1768 beyond the Alleghany Mountains. ...
The years 1765-1795 are the true period of the power and
importance of the Delawares. United with the Shawnoes, who
were settled on the Scioto, they sustained during the Seven
Years' War the declining power of France, and arrested for
some years the progress of the British and American arms.
Although a portion of the nation adhered to the Americans
during the War of Independence, the main body, together with
all the western nations made common cause with the British.
And, after the short truce which followed the treaty of 1783,
they were again at the head of the western confederacy in
their last struggle for independence. Placed by their
geographical situation in the front of battle, they were,
during those three wars, the aggressors, and, to the last
moment, the most active and formidable enemies of America. The
decisive victory of General Wayne (1794), dissolved the
confederacy; and the Delawares were the greatest sufferers by
the treaty of Greenville of 1795."
{86}
After this, the greater part of the Delawares were settled on
White River, Indiana, "till the year 1819, when they finally
ceded their claim to the United States. Those residing there
were then reduced to about 800 souls. A number ... had
previously removed to Canada; and it is difficult to ascertain
the situation or numbers of the residue at this time [1836].
Those who have lately removed west of the Mississippi are, in
an estimate of the War Department, computed at 400 souls.
Former emigrations to that quarter had however taken place,
and several small dispersed bands are, it is believed, united
with the Senecas and some other tribes."
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia
Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2.
See, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY:
below: SHAWANESE, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
Also, PONTIAC'S WAR; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768;
and MORAVIAN BRETHREN;
and, for an account of "Lord Dunmore's War,"
see Ohio (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Eries.
See below: HURONS, &c.,
and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Eskimauan Family.
"Save a slight inter-mixture of European settlers, the Eskimo
are the only inhabitants of the shores of Arctic America, and
of both sides of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, including
Greenland, as well as a tract of about 400 miles on the
Behring Strait coast of Asia. Southward they extend as far as
about 50° North latitude on the eastern side, 60° on the
western side of America, and from 55° to 60° on the shores of
Hudson Bay. Only on the west the Eskimo near their frontier
are interrupted on two small spots of the coast by the Indians,
named Kennayans and Ugalenzes, who have there advanced to the
sea-shore for the sake of fishing. These coasts of Arctic
America, of course, also comprise all the surrounding islands.
Of these, the Aleutian Islands form an exceptional group; the
inhabitants of these on the one hand distinctly differing from
the coast people here mentioned, while on the other they show
a closer relationship to the Eskimo than any other nation. The
Aleutians, therefore, may be considered as only an abnormal
branch of the Eskimo nation. ... As regards their northern
limits, the Eskimo people, or at least remains of their
habitations, have been found nearly as far north as any Arctic
explorers have hitherto advanced: and very possibly bands of
them may live still farther to the north, as yet quite unknown
to us. ... On comparing the Eskimo with the neighbouring
nations, their physical complexion certainly seems to point at
an Asiatic origin; but, as far as we know, the latest
investigations have also shown a transitional link to exist
between the Eskimo and the other American nations, which would
sufficiently indicate the possibility of a common origin from
the same continent. As to their mode of life, the Eskimo
decidedly resemble their American neighbours. ... With regard
to their language, the Eskimo also appear akin to the American
nations in regard to its decidedly polysynthetic structure.
Here, however, on the other hand, we meet with some very
remarkable similarities between the Eskimo idiom and the
language of Siberia, belonging to the Altaic or Finnish group.
... According to the Sagas of the Icelanders, they were
already met with on the east coast of Greenland about the year
1000, and almost at the same time on the east coast of the
American continent. ... Between the years 1000 and 1300 they
do not seem to have occupied the land south of 65° North L. on
the west coast of Greenland, where the Scandinavian colonies
were then situated. But the colonists seem to have been aware
of their existence in higher latitudes, and to have lived in
fear of an attack by them, since, in the year 1266, an
expedition was sent out for the purpose of exploring the
abodes of the Skrælings, as they were called by the colonists.
... About the year 1450, the last accounts were received from
the colonies, and the way to Greenland was entirely forgotten
in the mother country. ... The features of the natives in the
Southern part of Greenland indicate a mixed descent from the
Scandinavians and Eskimo, the former, however, not having left
the slightest sign of any influence on the nationality or
culture of the present natives. In the year 1585, Greenland
was discovered anew by John Davis, and found inhabited
exclusively by Eskimo."
H. Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo,
introduction and chapter 6.
H. Rink, The Eskimo tribes.
"In 1869, I proposed for the Aleuts and people of Innuit stock
collectively the term Orarians, as indicative of their
coastwise distribution, and as supplying the need of a general
term to designate a very well-defined race. ...The Orarians
are divided into two well-marked groups, namely the Innuits,
comprising all the so-called Eskimo and Tuskis, and the
Aleuts."
W. H. Dall, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest (Contributed
to North American Ethnology, volume 1), part 1.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Esselenian Family.
"The present family was included by Latham in the
heterogeneous group called by him Salinas. ... The term
Salinan [is now] restricted to the San Antonio and San Miguel
languages, leaving the present family ... [to be] called
Esselenian, from the name of the single tribe Esselen, of
which it is composed. ... The tribe or tribes composing this
family occupied a narrow strip of the California coast from
Monterey Bay south to the vicinity of the Santa Lucia
Mountain, a distance of about 50 miles."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 75-76.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Etchemins.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Eurocs, or Yuroks.
See below: MODOCS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Five Nations.
See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Flatheads (Salishan Family).
See Note, Appendix E.
"The name Flathead was commonly given to the Choctaws, though,
says Du Pratz, he saw no reason why they should be so
distinguished, when the practice of flattening the head was so
general. And in the enumeration just cited [Documentary Hist.
of New York, volume 1, page 24] the next paragraph. ... is: 'The
Flatheads, Cherakis, Chicachas, and Totiris are included under
the name of Flatheads by the Iroquois."
M. F. Force, Some Early Notices of the Indians of Ohio,
page 32.
"The Salish ... are distinctively known as Flatheads, though
the custom of deforming the cranium is not confined to them."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 107.
"In ... early times the hunters and trappers could not
discover why the Blackfeet and Flatheads [of Montana] received
their respective designations, for the feet of the former are
no more inclined to sable than any other part of the body,
while the heads of the latter possess their fair proportion of
rotundity. Indeed it is only below the falls and rapids that
real Flatheads appear, and at the mouth of the Columbia that
they flourish most supernaturally. The tribes who practice the
custom of flattening the head, and who lived at the mouth of
the Columbia, differed little from each other in laws, manners
or customs, and were composed of the Cathlamahs, Killmucks,
Clatsops, Chinooks and Chilts. The abominable custom of
flattening their heads prevails among them all."
P. Ronan, Historical Sketch of the Flathead Indian
Nation, page 17.
In Major Powell's linguistic classification, the "Salishan
Family" (Flathead) is given a distinct place.
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, page 102.
{87}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Fox Indians.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
and below, SACS, &c.
For an account of the massacre of Fox Indians at Detroit in
1712,
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1711-1713.
For an account of the Black Hawk War,
See Illinois: A. D. 1832.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Fuegians.
See below: PATAGONIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Gausarapos or Guuchies.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Ges Tribes.
See below: TUPI.--GUARANI.--TUPUYAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Gros Ventres (Minnetaree; Hidatsa).
See Note, Appendix E.
See below: HIDATSA;
also, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guaicarus.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guajira.
See above: COAJIRO.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guanas.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guarani.
See below: TUPI.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guayanas.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guck or Coco Group.
An extensive linguistic group of tribes in Brazil, on and
north of the Amazon, extending as far as the Orinoco, has been
called the Guck, or Coco group. "There is no common name for
the group, that here used meaning a father's brother, a very
important personage in these tribes. The Guck group embraces a
large number of tribes. ... We need enumerate but few. The
Cuyriri or Kiriri (also known as Sabaja, Pimenteiras, etc.),
number about 3,000. Some of them are half civilized, some are
wild, and, without restraint, wander about, especially in the
mountains in the Province of Pernambuco. The Araicu live on
the lower Amazon and the Tocantins. Next come the Manaos, who
have a prospect of maintaining themselves longer than most
tribes. With them is connected the legend of the golden lord
who washed the gold dust from his limbs in a lake [see EL
DORADO]. ... The Uirina, Baré, and Cariay live on the Rio
Negro, the Cunimaré on the Jurua, the Maranha on the Jutay.
Whether the Chamicoco on the right bank of the Paraguay,
belong to the Guck is uncertain. Among the tribes which,
though very much mixed, are still to be enumerated with the
Guck, are the Tecuna and the Passé. In language the Tecunas
show many similarities to the Ges; they live on the western
borders of Brazil, and extend in Equador to the Pastaça. Among
them occur peculiar masques which strongly recall those found
on the northwest coast of North America. ... In the same
district belong the Uaupe, who are noticeable from the fact
that they live in barracks, indeed the only tribe in South
America in which this custom appears. The communistic houses
of the Uaupe are called 'malloca;' they are buildings of about
120 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 30 high, in which live a band
of about 100 persons in 12 families, each of the latter,
however, in its own room. ... Finally, complex tribes of the
most different nationality are comprehended under names which
indicate only a common way of life, but are also incorrectly
used as ethnographic names. These are Caripuna, Mura, and
Miranha, all of whom live in the neighborhood of the Madeira
River. Of the Caripuna or Jaûn-Avô (both terms signify
'watermen'), who are mixed with Quichua blood, it is related
that they not only ate human flesh, but even cured it for
preservation. ... Formerly the Mura ... were greatly feared;
this once powerful and populous tribe, however, was almost
entirely destroyed at the end of the last century by the
Mundruco; the remnant is scattered. ... The Mura are the
gypsies among the Indians on the Amazon; and by all the other
tribes they are regarded with a certain degree of contempt as
pariahs. ... Much to be feared, even among the Indians, are
also the Miranha (i. e., rovers, vagabonds), a still populous
tribe on the right bank of the Japura, who seem to know
nothing but war, robbery, murder, and man-hunting."
The Standard Natural History
(J. S. Kingsley, ed.), volume 6, pages 245-248.
ALSO IN F. Keller, The Amazon and Madeira Rivers,
chapter 2 and 6.
H. W. Bates, A Naturalist on the River Amazons,
chapter 7-13.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Guuchies.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Hackinsacks.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Haidas.
See below: SKITTAGETAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Grosventres
See Note, Appendix E.
"The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Grosventre Indians, are one of
the three tribes which at present inhabit the permanent
village at Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the
waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, in
Northwestern Dakota and Eastern Montana. The history of this
tribe is ... intimately connected with that of the politically
allied tribes of the Aricarees and Mandans." The name,
Grosventres, was given to the people of this tribe "by the
early French and Canadian adventurers. The same name was
applied also to a tribe, totally distinct from these in
language and origin, which lives some hundreds of miles west
of Fort Berthold; and the two nations are now distinguished
from one another as Grosventres of the Missouri and
Grosventres of the Prairie. ... Edward Umfreville, who traded
on the Saskatchewan River from 1784 to 1787, ... remarks: ...
'They [the Canadian French] call them Grosventres, or
Big-Bellies; and without any reason, as they are as comely and
as well made as any tribe whatever.' ... In the works of many
travellers they are called Minnetarees, a name which is
spelled in various ways. ... This, although a Hidatsa word, is
the name applied to them, not by themselves, but by the
Mandans; it signifies 'to cross the water,' or 'they crossed
the water.' ... Hidatsa was the name of the village on Knife
River farthest from the Missouri, the village of those whom
Lewis and Clarke considered the Minnetarees proper." It is the
name "now generally used by this people to designate
themselves."
W. Matthews, Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa
Indians, parts 1-2 (United States Geological and
Geographical Survey. F. V. Hayden, Mis. Pub., No. 7).
See also, below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
{88}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Hitchitis.
See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Horikans.
North of the Mohegans, who occupied the east bank of the
Hudson River opposite Albany, and covering the present
counties of Columbia and Rensselaer, dwelt the Algonkin tribe
of Horikans, "whose hunting grounds appear to have extended
from the waters of the Connecticut, across the Green
Mountains, to the borders of that beautiful lake [named Lake
George by the too loyal Sir William Johnson] which might now
well bear their sonorous name."
J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York,
page 77.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Huamaboya.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Huancas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Huastecs.
See below: MAYAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Huecos, or Wacos.
See below: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Humas, or Oumas.
See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Hupas.
See Note, Appendix E.
See below: MODOCS, &c.
Hurons, or Wyandots.
Neutral Nation.
Eries.
"The peninsula between the Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario was
occupied by two distinct peoples, speaking dialects of the
Iroquois tongue. The Hurons or Wyandots, including the tribe
called by the French the Dionondadies, or Tobacco Nation,
dwelt among the forests which bordered the eastern shores of
the fresh water sea to which they have left their name; while
the Neutral Nation, so called from their neutrality in the war
between the Hurons and the Five Nations, inhabited the
northern shores of Lake Erie, and even extended their eastern
flank across the strait of Niagara. The population of the
Hurons has been variously stated at from 10,000 to 30,000
souls, but probably did not exceed the former estimate. The
Franciscans and the Jesuits were early among them, and from
their descriptions it is apparent that, in legends, and
superstitions, manners and habits, religious observances and
social customs, they were closely assimilated to their
brethren of the Five Nations. ... Like the Five Nations, the
Wyandots were in some measure an agricultural people; they
bartered the surplus products of their maize fields to
surrounding tribes, usually receiving fish in exchange; and
this traffic was so considerable that the Jesuits styled their
country the Granary of the Algonquins. Their prosperity was
rudely broken by the hostilities of the Five Nations; for
though the conflicting parties were not ill matched in point
of numbers, yet the united counsels and ferocious energies of
the confederacy swept all before them. In the year 1649, in
the depth of winter, their warriors invaded the country of the
Wyandots, stormed their largest villages, and involved all
within in indiscriminate slaughter. The survivors fled in
panic terror, and the whole nation was broken and dispersed.
Some found refuge among the French of Canada, where, at the
village of Lorette, near Quebec, their descendants still
remain; others were incorporated with their conquerors, while
others again fled northward, beyond Lake Superior, and sought
an asylum among the wastes which bordered on the north-eastern
lands of the Dahcotah. Driven back by those fierce bison-hunters,
they next established themselves about the outlet of Lake
Superior, and the shores and islands in the northern parts of
Lake Huron. Thence, about the year 1680, they descended to
Detroit, where they formed a permanent settlement, and where,
by their superior valor, capacity and address, they soon
acquired an ascendancy over the surrounding Algonquins. The
ruin of the Neutral Nation followed close on that of the
Wyandots, to whom, according to Jesuit authority, they bore an
exact resemblance in character and manners. The Senecas soon
found means to pick a quarrel with them; they were assailed by
all the strength of the insatiable confederacy, and within a
few years their destruction as a nation was complete."
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.
F. Parkman, The Jesuits in North America, chapter 1.
"The first in this locality [namely, the western extremity of
the State of New York, on and around the site of the city of
Buffalo], of whom history makes mention, were the
Attiouandaronk, or Neutral Nation, called Kah-kwas by the
Senecas. They had their council-fires along the Niagara, but
principally on its western side. Their hunting grounds
extended from the Genesee nearly to the eastern shores of Lake
Huron, embracing a wide and important territory. ... They are
first mentioned by Champlain during his winter visit to the
Hurons in 1615 ... but he was unable to visit their territory.
... The peace which this peculiar people had so long
maintained with the Iroquois was destined to be broken. Some
jealousies and collisions occurred in 1647, which culminated
in open war in 1650. One of the villages of the Neutral
Nation, nearest the Senecas and not far from the site of our
city [Buffalo], was captured in the autumn of the latter year,
and another the ensuing spring. So well-directed and energetic
were the blows of the Iroquois, that the total destruction of
the Neutral Nation was speedily accomplished. ... The
survivors were adopted by their conquerors. .... A long period
intervened between the destruction of the Neutral Nation and
the permanent occupation of their country by the
Senecas,"--which latter event occurred after the expulsion of
the Senecas from the Genesee Valley, by the expedition under
General Sullivan, in 1779, during the Revolutionary War. "They
never, as a nation, resumed their ancient seats along the
Genesee, but sought and found a new home on the secluded banks
and among the basswood forests of the Dó-syo-wa, or Buffalo
Creek, whence they had driven the Neutral Nation 130 years
before. ... It has been assumed by many writers that the
Kah-kwas and Eries were identical. This is not so. The latter,
according to the most reliable authorities, lived south of the
western extremity of Lake Erie until they were destroyed by
the Iroquois in 1655. The Kah-kwas were exterminated by them
as early as 1651. On Coronelli's map, published in 1688, one
of the villages of the latter, called 'Kahouagoga, a destroyed
nation,' is located at or near the site of Buffalo."
O. H. Marshall, The Niagara Frontier, pages 5-8, and
foot-note.
"Westward of the Neutrals, along the Southeastern shores of
Lake Erie, and stretching as far east as the Genesee river,
lay the country of the Eries, or, as they were denominated by
the Jesuits, 'La Nation Chat,' or Cat Nation, who were also a
member of the Huron-Iroquois family. The name of the beautiful
lake on whose margin our city [Buffalo] was cradled is their
most enduring monument, as Lake Huron is that of the generic
stock. They were called the Cat Nation either because that
interesting but mischievous animal, the raccoon, which the
holy fathers erroneously classed in the feline gens, was the
totem of their leading clan, or sept, or in consequence of the
abundance of that mammal within their territory."
W. C. Bryant, Interesting Archaeological Studies in and
about Buffalo, page 12.
{89}
Mr. Schoolcraft either identifies or confuses the Eries and
the Neutral Nation.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Sketch of the History of the Ancient
Eries (Information Respecting the Indian Tribes, part 4. p.
197).
ALSO IN
J. G. Shea, Inquiries Respecting the lost Neutral Nation
(same, part 4, page 204).-
D. Wilson, The Huron-Iroquois of Canada (Trans. Royal
Society of Canada, 1884).
P. D. Clarke, Origin and Traditional History of the
Wyandottes.
W. Ketchum, History of Buffalo, volume 1, chapter 1-2.
N. B. Craig. The Olden Time, volume 1, page 225.
See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY;
Also, CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1608-1611; 1611-1616;
1634-1652; 1640-1700.
See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.
For an account of "Lord Dunmore's War,"
See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Illinois and Miamis.
"Passing the country of the Lenape and the Shawanoes, and
descending the Ohio, the traveller would have found its valley
chiefly occupied by two nations, the Miamis or Twightwees, on
the Wabash and its branches, and the Illinois, who dwelt in
the neighborhood of the river to which they have given their
name, while portions of them extended beyond the Mississippi.
Though never subjugated, as were the Lenape, both the Miamis
and the Illinois were reduced to the last extremity by the
repeated attacks of the Five Nations; and the Illinois, in
particular, suffered so much by these and other wars, that the
population of ten or twelve thousand, ascribed to them by the
early French writers, had dwindled, during the first quarter
of the eighteenth century,
to a few small villages."
F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.
See, also, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
and below: SACS, &c.;
also CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1669-1687.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Incas, or Yncas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Innuits.
See above: ESKIMAUAN.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iowas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy.
Iroquoian Family.
"At the outset of the 16th Century, when the five tribes or
nations of the Iroquois confederacy first became known to
European explorers, they were found occupying the valleys and
uplands of northern New York, in that picturesque and fruitful
region which stretches westward from the head-waters of the
Hudson to the Genesee. The Mohawks, or Caniengas--as they
should properly be called--possessed the Mohawk River, and
covered Lake George and Lake Champlain with their flotillas of
large canoes, managed with the boldness and skill which,
hereditary in their descendants, make them still the best
boatmen of the North American rivers. West of the Caniengas
the Oneidas held the small river and lake which bear their
name. ... West of the Oneidas, the imperious Onondagas, the
central and, in some respects, the ruling nation of the
League, possessed the two lakes of Onondaga and Skaneateles.
together with the common outlet of this inland lake system,
the Oswego River to its issue into Lake Ontario. Still
proceeding westward, the lines of trail and river led to the
long and winding stretch of Lake Cayuga, about which were
clustered the towns of the people who gave their name to the
lake; and beyond them, over the wide expanse of hills and
dales surrounding Lakes Seneca and Canandaigua, were scattered
the populous villages of the Senecas, more correctly called
Sonontowanas, or Mountaineers. Such were the names and abodes
of the allied nations, members of the far-famed Kanonsionni,
or League of United Households, who were destined to become
for a time the most notable and powerful community among the
native tribes of North America. The region which has been
described was not, however, the original seat of those nations.
They belonged to that linguistic family which is known to
ethnologists as the Huron-Iroquois stock. This stock comprised
the Hurons or Wyandots, the Attiwandaronks or Neutral Nation,
the Iroquois, the Eries, the Andastes or Conestogas, the
Tuscaroras and some smaller bands. The tribes of this family
occupied a long irregular area of inland territory, stretching
from Canada to North Carolina. The northern nations were all
clustered about the great lakes; the southern bands held the
fertile valleys bordering the head-waters of the rivers which
flowed from the Allegheny mountains. The languages of all
these tribes showed a close affinity. ... The evidence of
language, so far as it has yet been examined, seems to show
that the Huron clans were the older members of the group; and
the clear and positive traditions of all the surviving tribes,
Hurons, Iroquois, and Tuscarora, point to the lower St.
Lawrence as the earliest known abode of their stock. Here the
first explorer, Cartier, found Indians of this stock at
Hochelaga and Stadaconé, now the sites of Montreal and Quebec.
... As their numbers increased, dissensions arose. The hive
swarmed, and band after band moved off to the west and south.
As they spread they encountered people of other stocks, with
whom they had frequent wars. Their most constant and most
dreaded enemies were the tribes of the Algonkin family, a
fierce and restless people, of northern origin, who everywhere
surrounded them. At one period, however, if the concurrent
traditions of both Iroquois and Algonkins can be believed,
these contending races for a time stayed their strife, and
united their forces in an alliance against a common and
formidable foe. This foe was the nation, or perhaps the
confederacy, of the Alligewi or Talligewi, the semi-civilized
'Mound-builders' of the Ohio Valley, who have left their name
to the Allegheny river and mountains, and whose vast
earthworks are still, after half-a-century of study, the
perplexity of archæologists. A desperate warfare ensued, which
lasted about a hundred years, and ended in the complete overthrow
and destruction, or expulsion, of the Alligewi. The survivors
of the conquered people fled southward. ... The time which has
elapsed since the overthrow of the Alligewi is variously
estimated. The most probable conjecture places it at a period
about a thousand years before the present day. It was
apparently soon after their expulsion that the tribes of the
Huron-Iroquois and the Algonkin stocks scattered themselves
over the wide region south of the Great Lakes, thus left open
to their occupancy."
H. Hale, Introduction to Iroquois Book of Rites.
{90}
After the coming of the Europeans into the New World, the
French were the first to be involved in hostilities with the
Iroquois, and their early wars with them produced a hatred
which could never be extinguished. Hence the English were able
to win the alliance of the Five Nations, when they struggled
with France for the mastery of the North American continent,
and they owed their victory to that alliance, probably, more
than to any other single cause. England still retained the
faithful friendship and alliance of the Iroquois when she came
to a struggle with her own colonies, and all the tribes except
the Oneidas were in arms against the Americans in the
Revolutionary War. "With the restoration of peace, the
political transaction of the League were substantially closed.
This was, in effect, the termination of their political
existence. The jurisdiction of the United States was extended
over their ancient territories, and from that time forth they
became dependent nations. During the progress of the
Revolution, the Mohawks abandoned their country and removed to
Canada, finally establishing themselves partly upon Grand
River, in the Niagara peninsula, and partly near Kingston,
where they now reside upon two reservations secured to them by
the British government. ... The policy of the State of New York
[toward the Iroquois nations] was ever just and humane.
Although their country, with the exception of that of the
Oneidas, might have been considered as forfeited by the event
of the Revolution, yet the government never enforced the
rights of conquest, but extinguished the Indian title to the
country by purchase, and treaty stipulations. A portion of the
Oneida nation [who had sold their lands to the State, from
time to time, excepting one small reservation] emigrated to a
reservation on the river Thames in Canada, where about 400 of
them now [1851] reside. Another and a larger band removed to
Green Bay, in Wisconsin, where they still make their homes to
the number of 700. But a small part of the nation have
remained around the seat of their ancient council-fire ...
near Oneida Castle, in the county of Oneida." The Onondagas
"still retain their beautiful and secluded valley of Onondaga,
with sufficient territory for their comfortable maintenance.
About 150 Onondagas now reside with the Senecas; another party
are established on Grand River, in Canada, and a few have
removed to the west. ... In the brief space of twelve years
after the first house of the white man was erected in Cayuga
county (1789) the whole nation [of the Cayugas] was uprooted
and gone. In 1795, they ceded, by treaty, all their lands to
the State, with the exception of one reservation, which they
finally abandoned about the year 1800. A portion of them
removed to Green Bay, another to Grand River, and still
another, and a much larger band, settled at Sandusky, in Ohio,
from whence they were removed by government, a few years
since, into the Indian territory, west of the Mississippi.
About 120 still reside among the Senecas, in western New York.
... The Tuscaroras, after removing from the Oneida territory,
finally located near the Niagara river, in the vicinity of
Lewiston, on a tract given to them by the Senecas. ... The
residue of the Senecas are now shut up within three small
reservations, the Tonawanda, the Cattaraugus and the Allegany,
which, united, would not cover the area of one of the lesser
counties of the State."
L. H. Morgan, The League of the Iroquois,
book 1, chapter 1.
"The Indians of the State of New York number about 5,000, and
occupy lands to the estimated extent of 87,()77 acres. With
few exceptions, these people are the direct descendants of the
native Indians, who once possessed and controlled the soil of
the entire State."
Report of Special Committee to Investigate the Indian
Problem of the State of New York 1889.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois.
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.
C. Colden, History of the Five Indian Nations.
J. Fiske, Discovery of America, chapter 1.
In 1715 the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy became
Six Nations, by the admission of the Tuscaroras, from N.
Carolina.
See below: IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH.
On the relationship between the Iroquois and the Cherokees,
See above: CHEROKEES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy.
Their Name.
"The origin and proper meaning of the word Iroquois are
doubtful. All that can be said with certainty is that the
explanation given by Charlevoix cannot possibly be correct.
The name of Iroquois, he says, is purely French, and has been
formed from the term 'hiro,' 'I have spoken,' a word by which
these Indians close all their speeches, and 'kouê,' which,
when long drawn out, is a cry of sorrow, and when briefly
uttered is an exclamation of joy. ... But ... Champlain had
learned the name from his Indian allies before he or any other
Frenchman, so far as is known, had ever seen an Iroquois. It
is probable that the origin of the word is to be sought in the
Huron language; yet, as this is similar to the Iroquois
tongue, an attempt may be made to find a solution in the
latter. According to Bruyas, the word 'garokwa' meant a pipe,
and also a piece of tobacco,--and, in its verbal form, to
smoke. This word is found, somewhat disguised by aspirates, in
the Book of Rites,--denighroghkwayen,--'let us two smoke
together.' ... In the indeterminate form the verb becomes
'ierokwa,' which is certainly very near to Iroquois. It might
be rendered 'they who smoke,' or 'they who use tobacco,' or,
briefly, 'the Tobacco People.' This name, the Tobacco Nation
('Nation du Petun') was given by the French, and probably also
by the Algonkins, to one of the Huron tribes, the Tionontates,
noted for the excellent tobacco which they raised and sold.
The Iroquois were equally well known for their cultivation of
this plant, of which they had a choice variety."
H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, appendix, note A.
Iroquois Confederacy.
Their conquests and wide dominion.
"The project of a League [among the 'Five Nations' of the
Iroquois] originated with the Onondagas, among whom it was
first suggested, as a means to enable them more effectually to
resist the pressure of contiguous nations. The epoch of its
establishment cannot now be decisively ascertained; although
the circumstances attending its formation are still preserved
by tradition with great minuteness. These traditions all refer
to the northern shore of the Onondaga lake, as the place where
the Iroquois chiefs assembled in general congress, to agree
upon the terms and principles of the compact. ... After the
formation of the League, the Iroquois rose rapidly in power
and influence. ... With the first consciousness of rising
power, they turned their long-cherished resentment upon the
Adirondacks, who had oppressed them in their infancy as a
nation, and had expelled them from their country, in the first
struggle for the ascendancy.
{91}
... At the era of French discovery (1535), the latter nation
[the Adirondacks] appear to have been dispossessed of their
original country, and driven down the St. Lawrence as far as
Quebec. ... A new era commenced with the Iroquois upon the
establishment of the Dutch trading-post at Orange, now Albany,
in 1615. ... Friendly relations were established between the
Iroquois and the Dutch, which continued without interruption
until the latter surrendered their possessions upon the Hudson
to the English in 1664. During this period a trade sprang up
between them in furs, which the Iroquois exchanged for
European fabrics, but more especially for fire-arms, in the
use of which they were afterwards destined to become so
expert. The English, in turn, cultivated the same relations of
friendship. ... With the possession of fire-arms commenced not
only the rapid elevation, but absolute supremacy of the
Iroquois over other Indian nations. In 1643, they expelled the
Neuter Nation from the Niagara peninsula and established a
permanent settlement at the mouth of that river. They nearly
exterminated, in 1653, the Eries, who occupied the south side
of Lake Erie, and from thence east to the Genesee, and thus
possessed themselves of the whole area of western New York,
and the northern part of Ohio. About the year 1670, after they
had finally completed the dispersion and subjugation of the
Adirondacks and Hurons, they acquired possession of the whole
country between lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and of the
north bank of the St. Lawrence, to the mouth of the Ottawa
river, near Montreal. ... They also made constant inroads upon
the New England Indians. ... In 1680, the Senecas with 600
warriors invaded the country of the Illinois, upon the borders
of the Mississippi, while La Salle was among the latter. ...
At various times, both before and after this period, the
Iroquois turned their warfare against the Cherokees upon the
Tennessee, and the Catawbas in South Carolina. ... For about a
century, from the year 1600 to the year 1700, the Iroquois
were involved in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At the close
of this period, they had subdued and held in nominal
subjection all the principal Indian nations occupying the
territories which are now embraced in the states of New York,
Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the northern and
western parts of Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Northern Tennessee,
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, a portion of the New England
States, and the principal part of Upper Canada. Over these
nations, the haughty and imperious Iroquois exercised a
constant supervision. If any of them became involved in
domestic difficulties, a delegation of chiefs went among them
and restored tranquillity, prescribing at the same time their
future conduct."
L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, book 1, chapter 1.
"Their [the Iroquois's] war-parties roamed over half America,
and their name was a terror from the Atlantic to the
Mississippi; but when we ask the numerical strength of the
dreaded confederacy, when we discover that, in the days of
their greatest triumphs, their united cantons could not have
mustered 4,000 warriors, we stand amazed at the folly and
dissension which left so vast a region the prey of a handful
of bold marauders. Of the cities and villages now so thickly
scattered over the lost domain of the Iroquois, a single one
might boast a more numerous population than all the five
united tribes."
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1608-1700.
Their wars with the French.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1608-1611; 1611-1616;
1634-1652; 1640-1700; 1696.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1648-1649.
Their destruction of the Hurons and the Jesuit Missions.
See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1634-1652;
also, above, HURONS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1684-1744.
Surrenders and conveyances to the English.
See
NEW YORK: A. D. 1684, and 1726;
VIRGINIA: A. D. 1744;
OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754;
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1778-1779.
Their part in the War of the American Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE-NOVEMBER)
and (JULY); and 1779 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Iroquois Tribes of the South.
See Note, Appendix E.
"The southern Iroquois tribes occupied Chowan River and its
tributary streams. They were bounded on the east by the most
southerly Lenape tribes, who were in possession of the low
country along the sea shores, and those of Albemarle and
Pamlico Sounds. Towards the south and the west they extended
beyond the river Neuse. They appear to have been known in
Virginia, in early times, under the name of Monacans, as far
north as James River. ... Lawson, in his account of the North

Carolina Indians, enumerates the Chowans, the Meherrins, and
the Nottoways, as having together 95 warriors in the year
1708. But the Meherrins or Tuteloes and the Nottoways
inhabited respectively the two rivers of that name, and were
principally seated in Virginia. We have but indistinct notices
of the Tuteloes. ... It appears by Beverly that the Nottoways
had preserved their independence and their numbers later than
the Powhatans, and that, at the end of the 17th century, they
had still 130 warriors. They do not appear to have migrated
from their original seats in a body. In the year 1820, they
are said to have been reduced to 27 souls, and were still in
possession of 7,000 acres in Southampton county, Virginia,
which had been at an early date reserved for them. ... The
Tuscaroras were by far the most powerful nation in North
Carolina, and occupied all the residue of the territory in
that colony, which has been described as inhabited by Iroquois
tribes. Their principal seats in 1708 were on the Neuse and
the Taw or Tar rivers, and according to Lawson they had 1,200
warriors in fifteen towns." In 1711 the Tuscaroras attacked
the English colonists, massacring 130 in a single day, and a
fierce war ensued. "In the autumn of 1712. all the inhabitants
south and southwest of Chowan River were obliged to live in
forts; and the Tuscaroras expected assistance from the Five
Nations. This could not have been given without involving the
confederacy in a war with Great Britain; and the Tuscaroras
were left to their own resources. A force, consisting chiefly
of southern Indians under the command of Colonel Moore, was
again sent by the government of South Carolina to assist the
northern Colonies. He besieged and took a fort of the
Tuscaroras. ... Of 800 prisoners 600 were given up to the
Southern Indians, who carried them to South Carolina to sell
them as slaves.
{92}
The Eastern Tuscaroras, whose principal town was on
the Taw, twenty miles above Washington, immediately made
peace, and a portion was settled a few years after north of
the Roanoke, near Windsor, where they continued till the year
1803. But the great body of the nation removed in 1714-15 to
the Five Nations, was received as the Sixth, and has since
shared their fate."
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia
Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2.
ALSO IN
J. W. Moore, History of North Carolina, volume 1, chapter 3.
See, also, above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Itocos.
See above: CHIBCHAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Itonamos, or Itonomos.
See above: ANDESIANS;
also BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Jivara, or Jivaro.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kah-kwas.
See above: HURONS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kalapooian Family.
"Under this family name Scouler places two tribes, the
Kalapooian, inhabiting 'the fertile Willamat plains' and the
Yamkallie, who live 'more in the interior, towards the sources
of the Willamat River.'... The tribes of the Kalapooian family
inhabited the valley of Willamette River, Oregon, above the
falls."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 81.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kanawhas, or Ganawese.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kansas, or Kaws.
See below: SIOUAN.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kapohn.
See above: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Karankawan Family.
"The Karankawa formerly dwelt upon the Texan coast, according
to Sibley, upon an island or peninsula in the Bay of St.
Bernard (Matagorda Bay). ... In 1884 Mr. Gatschet found a
Tonkawe at Fort Griffin, Texas, who claimed to have formerly
lived among the Karankawa. From him a vocabulary of
twenty-five terms was obtained, which was all of the language
he remembered. The vocabulary ... such as it is, represents
all of the language that is extant. Judged by this vocabulary
the language seems to be distinct not only from the Attakapa
but from all others."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 82.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Karoks, or Cahrocs.
See below: MODOCS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kaskaskias.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kaus, or Kwokwoos.
See below: KUSAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kaws, or Kansas.
See below: SIOUAN.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kenai, or Blood Indians.
See above: BLACKFEET.
See Note, Appendix E.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Keresan Family.
"The ... pueblos of Keresan stock ... are situated in New
Mexico on the upper Rio Grande, on several of its small
western affluents, and on the Jemez and San Jose, which also
are tributaries of the Rio Grande."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
page 83.
See PUEBLO.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kikapoos.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
and below: SACS, &c., and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kiowan Family.
"Derivation: From the Kiowa word Kó-i, plural Kó-igu, meaning
'Káyowe man.' The Comanche term Káyowe means 'rat.' The author
who first formally separated this family appears to have been
Turner. ... Turner, upon the strength of a vocabulary
furnished by Lieutenant Whipple, dissents from the opinion
expressed by Pike and others to the effect that the language
is of the same stock as the Comanche, and, while admitting
that its relationship to Comanche is greater than to any other
family, thinks that the likeness is merely the result of long
intercommunication. His opinion that it is entirely distinct
from any other language has been indorsed by Buschmann and
other authorities. The family is represented by the Kiowa
tribe. So intimately associated with the Comanches have the
Kiowa been since known to history that it is not easy to
determine their pristine home. ... Pope definitely locates the
Kiowa in the valley of the Upper Arkansas, and of its
tributary, the Purgatory (Las Animas) River. This is in
substantial accord with the statements of other writers of
about the same period. Schermerhorn (1812) places the Kiowa on
the heads of the Arkansas and Platte. Earlier still they
appear upon the headwaters of the Platte."-
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 84.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kiriri, Cuyriri.
See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kitunahan Family.
"This family was based upon a tribe variously termed Kitunaha,
Kutenay, Cootenai, or Flatbow, living on the Kootenay River,
a branch of the Columbia in Oregon."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
page 85.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Klamaths.
See below: MODOCS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Koluschan Family.
"Derivation: From the Aleut word kolosh, or more properly,
kaluga, meaning 'dish,' the allusion being to the dishshaped
lip ornaments. This family was based by Gallatin upon the
Koluschen tribe (the Tshinkitani of Marchand), 'who inhabit
the islands and the [Pacific] coast from the 60th to the 55th
degree of north latitude.'"
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 86.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kulanapan Family.
"The main territory of the Kulanapan family is bounded on the
west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by the Yukian and
Copohan territories, on the north by the watershed of the
Russian River, and on the south by a line drawn from Bodega
Head to the southwest corner of the Yukian territory, near
Santa Rosa, Sonoma County, California."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 88.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kusan Family:
"The 'Kaus or Kwokwoos' tribe is merely mentioned by Hale as
living on a river of the same name between the Umqua and the
Clamet."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 89.
See Note, Appendix E.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Kwokwoos.
See above: KUSAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Lenape.
See above: DELAWARES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Machicuis.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Macushi.
See above: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Manaos.
See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mandans, or Mandanes.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Manhattans.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY,
and, also, MANHATTAN ISLAND.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Manioto, or Mayno.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mapochins.
See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Maranha.
See above: GUCK OR Coco GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Maricopas.
See below: PUEBLOS.
{93}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mariposan Family.
"Derivation: A Spanish word meaning 'butterfly,' applied to a
county in California and subsequently taken for the family
name. Latham mentions the remnants of three distinct bands of
the Coconoon, each with its own language, in the north of
Mariposa County. These are classed together under the above
name. More recently the tribes speaking languages allied to
the Coconun have been treated of under the family name Yokut.
As, however, the stock was established by Latham on a sound
basis, his name is here restored."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology,
page 90.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mascoutins, or Mascontens,
See below: SACS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Massachusetts,
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mataguayas.
See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS,
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mayas.
"In his second voyage, Columbus heard vague rumors of a
mainland westward from Jamaica and Cuba, at a distance of ten
days' journey in a canoe. ... During his fourth voyage
(1503-4), when he was exploring the Gulf southwest from Cuba,
he picked up a canoe laden with cotton clothing variously
dyed. The natives in it gave him to understand that they were
merchants, and came from a land called Maia. This is the first
mention in history of the territory now called Yucatan, and of
the race of the Mayas; for although a province of similar name
was found in the western extremity of the island of Cuba, the
similarity was accidental, as the evidence is conclusive that
no colony of the Mayas was found on the Antilles. ... Maya was
the patrial name of the natives of Yucatan. It was the proper
name of the northern portion of the peninsula. No single
province bore it at the date of the Conquest, and probably it
had been handed down as a generic term from the period, about
a century before, when this whole district was united under
one government. ... Whatever the primitive meaning and first
application of the name Maya, it is now used to signify
specifically the aborigines of Yucatan. In a more extended
sense, in the expression 'the Maya family,' it is understood
to embrace all tribes, wherever found, who speak related
dialects presumably derived from the same ancient stock as the
Maya proper. ... The total number of Indians of pure blood
speaking the Maya proper may be estimated as nearly or quite
200,000, most of them in the political limits of the
department of Yucatan; to these should be added nearly 100,000
of mixed blood, or of European descent, who use the tongue in
daily life. For it forms one of the rare examples of American
languages possessing vitality enough not only to maintain its
ground, but actually to force itself on European settlers and
supplant their native speech. ... The Mayas did not claim to
be autochthones. Their legends referred to their arrival by
the sea from the East, in remote times, under the leadership
of Itzamna, their hero-god, and also to a less numerous
immigration from the West, which was connected with the
history of another hero-god, Kukul Càn. The first of these
appears to be wholly mythical. ... The second tradition
deserves more attention from the historian. ... It cannot be
denied that the Mayas, the Kiches [or Quiches] and the
Cakchiquels, in their most venerable traditions, claimed to
have migrated from the north or west from some part of the
present country of Mexico. These traditions receive additional
importance from the presence on the shores of the Mexican
Gulf, on the waters of the river Panuco, north of Vera Cruz,
of a prominent branch of the Maya family, the Huastecs. The
idea suggests itself that these were the rear-guard of a great
migration of the Maya family from the north toward the south.
Support is given to this by their dialect, which is most
closely akin to that of the Tzendals of Tabasco, the nearest
Maya race to the south of them, and also by very ancient
traditions of the Aztecs. It is noteworthy that these two
partially civilized races, the Mayas and the Aztecs, though
differing radically in language, had legends which claimed a
community of origin in some indefinitely remote past. We find
these on the Maya side narrated in the sacred book of the
Kiches, the Popol Vuh, in the Cakchiquel 'Records of Tecpan
Atillan,' and in various pure Maya sources. ... The annals of
the Aztecs contain frequent allusions to the Huastecs."
D. G. Brinton, The Maya Chronicles, introduction.
"Closely enveloped in the dense forests of Chiapas, Gautemala,
Yucatan, and Honduras, the ruins of several ancient cities
have been discovered, which are far superior in extent and
magnificence to any seen in Aztec territory, and of which a
detailed description may be found in the fourth volume of this
work. Most of these cities were abandoned and more or less
unknown at the time of the [Spanish] Conquest. They bear
hieroglyphic inscriptions apparently identical in character;
in other respects they resemble each other more than they
resemble the Aztec ruins--or even other and apparently later
works in Guatemala and Honduras. All these remains bear
evident marks of great antiquity. ... I deem the grounds
sufficient ... for accepting this Central American
civilization of the past as a fact, referring it not to an
extinct ancient race, but to the direct ancestors of the
peoples still occupying the country with the Spaniards, and
applying to it the name Maya as that of the language which has
claims as strong as any to be considered the mother tongue of
the linguistic family mentioned. ... There are no data by
which to fix the period of the original Maya empire, or its
downfall or breaking up into rival factions by civil and
foreign wars. The cities of Yucatan, as is clearly shown by
Mr. Stephens, were, many of them, occupied by the descendants
of the builders down to the conquest, and contain some
remnants of wood-work still in good preservation, although
some of the structures appear to be built on the ruins of
others of a somewhat different type. Palenque and Copan, on
the contrary, have no traces of wood or other perishable
material, and were uninhabited and probably unknown in the
16th century. The loss of the key to what must have been an
advanced system of hieroglyphics, while the spoken language
survived, is also an indication of great antiquity, confirmed
by the fact that the Quiché structures of Guatemala differed
materially from those of the more ancient epoch. It is not
likely that the Maya empire in its integrity continued later
than the 3d or 4th century, although its cities may have been
inhabited much later, and I should fix the epoch of its
highest power at a date preceding rather than following the
Christian era."
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States,
volume 2, chapter 2; volume 4, ch, 3-6;
volume 5, chapter 11-13.
{94}
ALSO IN
Marquis de Nadaillac, Prehistoric America, chapter 6-7.
J. L. Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Yucatan; and
Travel in Central America, &c.
B. M. Norman, Rambles in Yucatan.
D. Charnay, Ancient Cities of the New World.
See, also, MEXICO: ANCIENT, and AZTEC AND AND MAYA
PICTURE-WRITING.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mayoruna, or Barbudo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Menominees.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Metöacs.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Miamis, or Twightwees.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, ILLINOIS, and SACS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Micmacs.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mingoes.
"The name of Mingo, or Mengwe, by which the Iroquois were
known to the Delawares and the other southern Algonkins, is
said to be a contraction of the Lenape word 'Mahongwi,'
meaning the 'People of the Springs.' The Iroquois possessed
the head-waters of the rivers which flowed through the country
of the Delawares."
H. Hale, The Iroquois Book of Rites,
appendix, note. A.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Minneconjou.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Minnetarees.
See above: HIDATSA;
and below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
See Note, Appendix E. 9.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Minquas.
See below: SUSQUEHANNAS;
and above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Minsis, Munsees, or Minisinks.
See above: DELAWARES, and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Miranha.
See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Missouris.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mixes.
See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mixtecs.
See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mocovis.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Modocs (Klamaths) and their California and Oregon neighbors.
See Note, Appendix E.
"The principal tribes occupying this region [of Northern
California from Rogue River on the north to the Eel River,
south] are the Klamaths, who live on the head waters of the
river and on the shores of the lake of that name; the Modocs,
on Lower Klamath Lake and along Lost River; the Shastas, to
the south-west of the Lakes; the Pitt River Indians; the
Euroes, on the Klamath River between Weitspek and the coast;
the Cahrocs, on the Klamath River from a short distance above
the junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Mountains; the
Hoopahs [or Hupas, a tribe of the Athapascan Family] in Hoopah
Valley on the Trinity near its junction with the Klamath;
numerous tribes on the coast from Eel River and Humboldt Bay
north, such as the Weeyots, Wallies, Tolewahs, etc., and the
Rogue River Indians, on and about the river of that name. The
Northern Californians are in every way superior to the central
and southern tribes."
H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, volume
1, ch, 4.
"On the Klamath there live three distinct tribes, called the
Yú-rok, Ká-rok, and Mó-dok, which names are said to mean,
respectively, 'down the river,' 'up the river,' and 'head of
the river.' ... The Karok are probably the finest tribe in
California. ... Hoopa Valley, on the Lower Trinity, is the
home of [the Hú-pá]. Next after the Ká-rok they are the finest
race in all that region, and they even excel them in their
statecraft, and in the singular influence, or perhaps brute
force, which they exercise over the vicinal tribes. They are
the Romans of Northern California in their valor and their
wide-reaching dominions; they are the French in the extended
diffusion of their language." The Modoks, "on the whole ...
are rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily good-natured race,
but treacherous at bottom, sullen when angered, notorious for
keeping Punic faith. But their bravery nobody can impeach or
deny; their heroic and long defense of their stronghold
against the appliances of modern civilized warfare, including
that arm so awful to savages--the artillery--was almost the
only feature that lent respectability to their wretched
tragedy of the Lava Beds [1873]."
S. Powers, Tribes of California (Contributions to N. A.
Ethnology, volume 3), chapter 1, 7, and 27.
"The home of the Klamath tribe of southwestern Oregon lies
upon the eastern slope of the southern extremity of the
Cascade Range, and very nearly coincides with what we may call
the head waters of the Klamath River, the main course of which
lies in Northern California. ... The main seat of the Modoc
people was the valley of Lost River, the shores of Tule and of
Little Klamath Lake. ... The two main bodies forming the Klamath
people are (1) the Klamath Lake Indians; (2) the Modoc
Indians. The Klamath Lake Indians number more than twice as
many as the Modoc Indians. They speak the northern dialect and
form the northern chieftaincy. ... The Klamath people possess
no historic traditions going further back in time than a
century, for the simple reason that there was a strict law
prohibiting the mention of the person or acts of a deceased
individual by using his name. ... Our present knowledge does
not allow us to connect the Klamath language genealogically
with any of the other languages compared, but ... it stands as
a linguistic family for itself."
A. S. Gatschet, The Klamath Indians (Contributions to N.
A. Ethnology, volume 2, part 1).
In Major Powell's linguistic classification, the Klamath and
Modoc dialects are embraced in a family called the Lutuamian
Family, derived from a Pit River word signifying "lake;" the
Yuroks in a family called the Weitspekan; and the Pit River
Indian dialects are provisionally set apart in a distinct
family named the Palaihnihan Family.
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 89 and 97.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mohaves (Mojaves).
See above: APACHE GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mohawks.
See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mohegans, or Mahicans.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
and below: STOCKBRIDGE INDIANS;
also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637.
Montagnais.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
and ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Montauks.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Moquelumnan Family.
"Derivation: From the river and hill of the same name in
Calaveras County, California. ... It was not until 1856 that
the distinctness of the linguistic family was fully set forth
by Latham. Under the head of Moquelumne, this author gathers
several vocabularies representing different languages and
dialects of the same stock. These are the Talatui of Hale, the
Tuolumne from Schoolcraft, the Sonoma dialects as represented
by the Tshokoyem vocabulary, the Chocuyem and Youkiousme
paternosters, and the Olamentke of Kostromitonov in Bäer's
Beiträge. ... The Moquelumnan family occupies the territory
bounded on the north by the Cosumne River, on the south by the
Fresno River, on the east by the Sierra Nevada, and on the
west by the San Joaquin River, with the exception of a strip
on the east bank occupied by the Cholovone. A part of this
family occupies also a territory bounded on the south by San
Francisco Bay."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 92-93.
{95}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Moquis.
See below: PUEBLOS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Morona.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Moxos, or Mojos.
See above: ANDESIANS;
also, BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mundrucu.
See below: TUPI.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Munsees.
See above: DELAWARES, and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
also MANHATTAN ISLAND.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Mura.
See above: GUCK Ort Coco GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Muskhogean, or Maskoki Family.
"Among the various nationalities of the Gulf territories the
Maskoki family of tribes occupied a central and commanding
position. Not only the large extent of territory held by them,
but also their numbers, their prowess in war, and a certain
degree of mental culture and self-esteem made of the Maskoki
one of the most important groups in Indian history. From their
ethnologic condition of later times, we infer that these
tribes have extended for many centuries back in time from the
Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond that river, and from
the Apalachian ridge to the Gulf of Mexico. With short
intermissions they kept up warfare with all the circumjacent
Indian communities, and also among each other. ... The
irresolute and egotistic policy of these tribes often caused
serious difficulties to the government of the English and
French colonies, and some of them constantly wavered in their
adhesion between the French and the English cause. The
American government overcame their opposition easily whenever
a conflict presented itself (the Seminole War forms an
exception), because, like all the Indians, they never knew how
to unite against a common foe. The two main branches of the
stock, the Creek and the Cha'hta [or Choctaw] Indians, were
constantly at war, and the remembrance of their deadly
conflicts has now passed to their descendants in the form of
folk lore. ... The only characteristic by which a subdivision
of the family can be attempted, is that of language. Following
their ancient topographic location from east to west, we
obtain the following synopsis: First branch, or Maskoki
proper: The Creek, Maskokálgi or Maskoki proper, settled on
Coosa, Tallapoosa, Upper and Middle Chatahuchi rivers. From
these branched off by segmentation the Creek portion of the
Seminoles, of the Yámassi and of the little Yamacraw
community. Second, or Apalachian branch: This southeastern
division, which may be called also 'a parte potiori' the
Hitchiti connection, anciently comprised the tribes on the
Lower Chatahuchi river, and, east from there, the extinct
Apalachi, the Mikasuki, and the Hitchiti portion of the
Seminoles, Yámassi and Yamacraws. Third, or Alibamu branch,
comprised the Alibamu villages on the river of that name; to
them belonged the Koassáti and Witumka on Coosa river, its
northern affluent. Fourth, Western or Cha'hta [Choctaw]
branch: From the main people, the Cha'hta, settled in the
middle portions of the State of Mississippi, the Chicasa,
Pascagoula, Biloxi, Huma, and other tribes once became
separated through segmentation. The strongest evidence for a
community of origin of the Maskoki tribes is furnished by the
fact that their dialects belong to one linguistic family. ...
Maskóki, Maskógi, isti Maskóki, designates a single person of
the Creek tribe, and forms, as a collective plural,
Maskokálgi, the Creek community, the Creek people, the Creek
Indians. English authors write this name Muscogee, Muskhogee,
and its plural Muscogulgee. The first syllable, as pronounced
by the Creek Indians, contains a clear short a. ... The accent
is usually laid on the middle syllable: Maskóki, Maskógi. None
of the tribes are able to explain the name from their own
language. ... Why did the English colonists call them Creek
Indians? Because, when the English traders entered the Maskoki
country from Charleston or Savannah, they had to cross a
number of streams or creeks, especially between the Chatahuchi
and Savannah rivers. Gallatin thought it probable that the
inhabitants of the country adjacent to Savannah river were
called Creeks from an early time. ... In the southern part of
the Cha'hta territory several tribes, represented to be of
Cha'hta lineage, appear as distinct from the main body, and
are always mentioned separately. The French colonists, in
whose annals they figure extensively, call them Mobilians,
Tohomes, Pascogoulas, Biloxis, Mougoulachas, Bayogoulas and
Humas (Oumas). They have all disappeared in our epoch, with
the exception of the Biloxi [Major Powell, in the Seventh
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, places the Biloxi in
the Siouan Family], [See Note, Appendix E.] of whom scattered
remnants live in the forests of Louisiana, south of the Red
River."
A. S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians,
volume 1, part 1.
"The Uchees and the Natches, who are both incorporated in the
[Muskhogee or Creek] confederacy, speak two distinct languages
altogether different from the Muskhogee. The Natches, a
residue of the well-known nation of that name, came from the
banks of the Mississippi, and joined the Creeks less than one
hundred years ago. The original seats of the Uchees were east
of the Coosa and probably of the Chatahoochee; and they
consider themselves as the most ancient inhabitants of the
country. They may have been the same nation which is called
Apalaches in the accounts of De Soto's expedition. ... The
four great Southern nations, according to the estimates of the
War Department ... consist now [1836] of 67,000 souls, viz.:
The Cherokees, 15,000; the Choctaws (18,500), the Chicasas
(5,500), 24,000; the Muskhogees, Seminoles, and Hitchittees,
26,000; the Uchees, Alibamons, Coosadas, and Natches, 2,000.
The territory west of the Mississippi, given or offered to
them by the United States in exchange for their lands east of
that river, contains 40,000,000 acres, exclusively of
what may be allotted to the Chicasas."
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia
Americana, volume 2), section 3.
See below: SEMINOLES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Musquito, or Mosquito Indians.
"That portion of Honduras known as the Musquito Coast derived
its name, not from the abundance of those troublesome insects,
but from a native tribe who at the discovery occupied the
shore near Blewfield Lagoon. They are an intelligent people,
short in stature, unusually dark in color, with finely cut
features, and small straight noses--not at all negroid,
except where there has been an admixture of blood. They number
about 6,000, many of whom have been partly civilized by the
efforts of missionaries, who have reduced the language to
writing and published in it a number of works. The Tunglas are
one of the sub-tribes of the Musquitos."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 162.
See, also, NICARAGUA: A. D., 1850.
{96}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nahuas.
See MEXICO, ANCIENT: THE MAYA AND NAHUA PEOPLES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nanticokes.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Napo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Narragansetts.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
also RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1636;
and NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637; 1674-1675; 1675; and 1676-1678.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Natchesan Family.
When the French first entered the lower Mississippi valley,
they found the Natchez [Na'htchi] occupying a region of
country that now surrounds the city which bears their name.
"By the persevering curiosity of Gallatin, it is established
that the Natchez were distinguished from the tribes around
them less by their customs and the degree of their
civilization than by their language, which, as far as
comparisons have been instituted, has no etymological affinity
with any other whatever. Here again the imagination too
readily invents theories; and the tradition has been widely
received that the dominion of the Natchez once extended even
to the Wabash. History knows them only as a feeble and
inconsiderable nation, who in the 18th century attached
themselves to the confederacy of the Creeks."
G. Bancroft, History of the United States
(Author's last revision), volume 2, page 97.
"Chateaubriand, in his charming romances, and some of the
early French writers, who often drew upon their fancy for
their facts, have thrown an interest around the Natchez, as a
semi-civilized and noble race, that has passed into history.
We find no traces of civilization in their architecture, or in
their social life and customs. Their religion was brutal and
bloody, indicating an Aztec origin. They were perfidious and
cruel, and if they were at all superior to the neighboring
tribes it was probably due to the district they occupied--the
most beautiful, healthy and productive in the valley of the
Mississippi--and the influence of its attractions in
substituting permanent for temporary occupation. The residence
of the grand chief was merely a spacious cabin, of one
apartment, with a mat of basket work for his bed and a log for
his pillow. ... Their government was an absolute despotism.
The supreme chief was master of their labor, their property,
and their lives. ... The Natchez consisted exclusively of two
classes--the Blood Royal and its connexions, and the common
people, the Mich-i-mioki-quipe, or Stinkards. The two classes
understood each other, but spoke a different dialect. Their
customs of war, their treatment of prisoners, their ceremonies
of marriage, their feasts and fasts, their sorceries and
witchcraft, differed very little from other savages. Father
Charlevoix, who visited Natchez in 1721, saw no evidences of
civilization. Their villages consisted of a few cabins, or
rather ovens, without windows and roofed with matting. The
house of the Sun was larger, plastered with mud, and a narrow
bench for a seat and bed. No other furniture in the mansion of
this grand dignitary, who has been described by imaginative
writers as the peer of Montezuma!"
J. F. H. Claiborne, Mississippi, volume 1, chapter 4.
In 1729, the Natchez, maddened by insolent oppressions,
planned and executed a general massacre of the French within
their territory. As a consequence, the tribe was virtually
exterminated within the following two years.
C. Gayarre, Louisiana, its Colonial History and Romance,
2d series, lecture 3 and 5.
"The Na'htchi, according to Gallatin, a residue of the
well-known nation of that name, came from the banks of the
Mississippi, and joined the Creek less than one hundred years
ago. The seashore from Mobile to the Mississippi was then
inhabited by several small tribes, of which the Na'htchi was
the principal. Before 1730 the tribe lived in the vicinity of
Natchez, Miss., along St. Catherine Creek. After their
dispersion by the French in 1730 most of the remainder joined
the Chicasa and afterwards the Upper Creek. They are now in
Creek and Cherokee Nations, Indian Territory. The linguistic
relations of the language spoken by the Taensa tribe have long
been in doubt, and it is possible they will ever remain so."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 96.
See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750.
See, also, above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Natchitoches;
See Note, Appendix E.
See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nausets.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Navajos.
See above: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY, and APACHE GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Neutral Nation.
See above: HURONS, &c.;
and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nez Percés, or Sahaptins.
"The Sahaptins or Nez Percés [the Shahaptian Family in Major
Powell's classification], with their affiliated tribes,
occupied the middle and upper valley of the Columbia and its
affluents, and also the passes of the mountains. They were in
contiguity with the Shoshones and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus
holding an important position, intermediate between the eastern
and the Pacific tribes. Having the commercial instinct of the
latter, they made good use of it."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 107.
ALSO IN
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology, page 106.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Niniquiquilas.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nipmucs, or Nipnets.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675; 1675; and 1676-1678
(KING PHILIP'S WAR).
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nootkas.
See below: WAKASHAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nottoways.
See above: IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Nyantics.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Ogalalas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Ojibwas, or Chippewas.
"The Ojibways, with their kindred, the Pottawattamies, and
their friends the Ottawas,--the latter of whom were fugitives
from the eastward, whence they had fled from the wrath of the
Iroquois,--were banded into a sort of confederacy. They were
closely allied in blood, language, manners and character. The
Ojibways, by far the most numerous of the three, occupied the
basin of Lake Superior, and extensive adjacent regions. In
their boundaries, the career of Iroquois conquest found at
length a check. The fugitive Wyandots sought refuge in the
Ojibway hunting grounds; and tradition relates that, at the
outlet of Lake Superior, an Iroquois war-party once
encountered a disastrous repulse. In their mode of life, they
were far more rude than the Iroquois, or even the southern
Algonquin tribes."
F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.
{97}
"The name of the tribe appears to be recent. It is not met
with in the older writers. The French, who were the earliest
to meet them, in their tribal seat at the falls or Sault de
Ste Marie, named them Saulteur, from this circumstance.
M'Kenzie uses the term 'Jibway,' as the equivalent of this
term, in his voyages. They are referred to, with little
difference in the orthography, in General Washington's report,
in 1754, of his trip to Le Bœuf, on Lake Erie; but are first
recognized, among our treaty-tribes, in the general treaty of
Greenville, of 1794, in which, with the Ottawas they ceded the
island of Michilimackinac, and certain dependencies, conceded
by them at former periods to the French. ... The Chippewas are
conceded, by writers on American philology ... to speak one of
the purest forms of the Algonquin."
H. R. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the History,
Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes, part 5, p.
142.
ALSO IN
G. Copway, The Ojibway Nation. J. G. Kohl, Kitchi-gami.
See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR:
and above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Omahas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Oneidas.
See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
Onondagas.
See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Orejones.
See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Osages.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY,
and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Otoes, or Ottoes.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY,
and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Otomis.
"According to Aztec tradition, the Otomis were the earliest
owners of the soil of Central Mexico. Their language was at
the conquest one of the most widely distributed of any in this
portion of the continent. Its central regions were the States
of Queretaro and Guanajuato. ... The Otomis are below the
average stature, of dark color, the skull markedly
dolichocephalic, the nose short and flattened, the eyes
slightly oblique."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 135.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Ottawas.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and OJIBWAS.
See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES
Pacaguara.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pacamora.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pamlicoes.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pampas Tribes.
"The chief tribe of the Pampas Indians was entitled Querandis
by the Spaniards, although they called themselves Pehuelches
[or Puelts--that is, the Eastern]. Various segments of these,
under different names, occupied the immense tract of ground,
between the river Parana and the republic of Chili. The
Querandis ... were the great opponents to settlement of the
Spaniards in Buenos Ayres. ... The Ancas or Aracaunos Indians
[see CHILE] resided on the west of the Pampas near Chili, and
from time to time assisted the Querandis in transporting
stolen cattle across the Cordilleras. The southern part of the
Pampas was occupied by the Balchitas, Uhilches, Telmelches,
and others, all of whom were branches of the original Quelches
horde. The Guarani Indians were the most famous of the South
American races. ... Of the Guayanas horde there were several
tribes--independent of each other, and speaking different
idioms, although having the same title of race. Their
territory extended from the river Guarai, one of the affluents
into the Uruguay, for many leagues northwards, and stretched
over to the Parana opposite the city of Corpus Christi. They
were some of the most vigorous opponents of the Spanish
invaders. ... The Nalicurgas Indians, who lived up to near 21°
South latitude were reputed to dwell in caves, to be very limited in
number, and to go entirely naked. The Gausarapos, or Guuchies
dwelt in the marshy districts near where the river Gausarapo,
or Guuchie, has its source. This stream enters from the east
into the Paraguay at 19° 16' 30" South latitude. ... The Cuatos lived
inside of a lake to the west of the river Paraguay, and
constituted a very small tribe. ... The Orejones dwelt on the
eastern brows of the mountains of Santa Lucia or San
Fernando--close to the western side of Paraguay river. ...
Another tribe, the Niniquiquilas, had likewise the names of
Potreros, Simanos, Barcenos, and Lathanos. They occupied a forest
which began at about 19° South latitude, some leagues backward
from the river Paraguay, and separated the Gran Chaco from the
province of Los Chiquitos in Peru. ... The Guanas Indians were
divided into eight separate segments, for each of which there
was a particular and different name. They lived between 20°
and 22° of South latitude in the Gran Chaco to the west of Paraguay,
and they were not known to the Spaniards till the latter
crossed the last-named river in 1673. ... The Albaias and
Payaguas Indians ... in former times, were the chief tribes of
the Paraguay territory. ... The Albaias were styled Machicuis
and Enimgas by other authors. At the time of the Spaniards'
arrival here, the Albaias occupied the Gran Chaco side of the
river Paraguay from 20° to 22° South latitude. Here they entered into
a treaty offensive and defensive with the Payaguas. ... The
joined forces of Albaias and Payaguas had managed to extend
their territory in 1673 down to 24° 7' South on the eastern side
of Paraguay river. ... The Albaias were a very tall and
muscular race of people. ... The Payagua Indians, before and
up to, as well as after, the period of the conquest, were
sailors, and domineered over the river Paraguay. ... The
Guaicarus lived on the Chaco side of Paraguay river and
subsisted entirely by hunting. From the barbarous custom which
their women had of inducing abortion to avoid the pain or
trouble of child-bearing, they became exterminated soon after
the conquest. ... The Tobas, who have also the titles of
Natecœt and Yncanabaite, were among the best fighters of the
Indians. They occupy the Gran Chaco, chiefly on the banks of
the river Vermejo, and between that and the Pilcomayo. Of
these there are some remains in the present day. ... The
Mocovis are likewise still to be found in the Chaco. ... The
Abipones, who were also styled Ecusgina and Quiabanabaite,
lived in the Chaco, so low down as 28° South. This was the
tribe with whom the Jesuits incorporated, when they erected
the city of San Geronimo, in the Gran Chaco, and nearly
opposite Goya, in 1748."
T. J. Hutchinson, The Parana, chapter 6-7.
{98}
"The Abipones inhabit [in the 18th century] the province
Chaco, the centre of all Paraguay; they have no
fixed abodes, nor any boundaries, except what fear of their
neighbours has established. They roam extensively in every
direction, whenever the opportunity of attacking their
enemies, or the necessity of avoiding them renders a journey
advisable. The northern shore of the Rio Grande or Bermejo,
which the Indians call Iñatè, was their native land in the
last century [the 17th]. Thence they removed, to avoid the war
carried on against Chaco by the Spaniards ... and, migrating
towards the south, took possession of a valley formerly held
by the Calchaquis. ... From what region their ancestors came
there is no room for conjecture."
M. Dobrizhoffer, Account of the Abipones, volume 2, chapter 1.
"The Abipones are in general above the middle stature, and of
a robust constitution. In summer they go quite naked; but in
winter cover themselves with skins. ... They paint themselves
all over with different colours."
Father Charlevoix, History of Paraguay,
book 7 (volume 1).
ALSO IN
The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor),
volume 6, pages 256-262.
See, also, below: TUPI.--GUARANI.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pampticokes.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pano.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Papagos.
See below: PIMAN FAMILY, and PUEBLOS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Parawianas.
See above: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pascogoulas.
See above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Passé.
See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Patagonians and Fuegians.
"The Patagonians call themselves Chonek or Tzoueca, or Inaken
(men, people), and by their Pampean neighbors are referred to
as Tehuel-Che, southerners. They do not, however, belong to
the Aucanian stock, nor do they resemble the Pampeans
physically. They are celebrated for their stature, many of
them reaching from six to six feet four inches in height, and

built in proportion. In color they are a reddish brown, and
have aquiline noses and good foreheads. They care little for a
sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as the Rio Negro.
... On the inhospitable shores of Tierra del Fuego there dwell
three nations of diverse stock, but on about the same plane of
culture. One of these is the Yahgans, or Yapoos, on the Beagle
Canal; the second is the Onas or Aonik, to the north and east
of these; and the third the Aliculufs, to the north and west.
... The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker of Paris,
that the Fuegians represent the oldest type or variety of the
American race. He believes that at one time this type occupied
the whole of South America south of the Amazon, and that the
Tapuyas of Brazil and the Fuegians are its surviving members.
This interesting theory demands still further evidence before
it can be accepted."
D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 327-332.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pawnee Family (named "Caddoan" by Major Powell).
"The Pawnee Family, though some of its branches have long been
known, is perhaps in history and language one of the least
understood of the important tribes of the West. In both
respects it seems to constitute a distinct group. During
recent years its extreme northern and southern branches have
evinced a tendency to blend with surrounding stocks; but the
central branch, constituting the Pawnee proper, maintains
still in its advanced decadence a bold line of demarcation
between itself and all adjacent tribes. The members of the
family are: The Pawnees, the Arikaras, the Caddos, the Huecos
or Wacos, the Keechies, the Tawaconies, and the Pawnee Picts
or Wichitas. The last five may be designated as the Southern
or Red River branches. At the date of the Louisiana purchase
the Caddos were living about 40 miles northwest of where
Shreveport now stands. Five years earlier their residence was
upon Clear Lake, in what is now Caddo Parish. This spot they
claimed was the place of their nativity, and their residence
from time immemorial. ... They have a tradition that they are
the parent stock, from which all the southern branches have
sprung, and to some extent this claim has been recognized. ...
The five [southern] bands are now all gathered upon a reserve
secured for them in the Indian Territory by the Government.
... In many respects, their method of building lodges, their
equestrianism, and certain social and tribal usages, they
quite closely resemble the Pawnees. Their connection, however,
with the Pawnee family, not till recently if ever mentioned,
is mainly a matter of vague conjecture. ... The name Pawnee is
most probably derived from 'párĭk-ĭ,' a horn; and seems to
have been once used by the Pawnees themselves to designate
their peculiar scalp-lock. From the fact that this was the
most noticeable feature in their costume, the name came
naturally to be the denominative term of the tribe. The word
in this use once probably embraced the Wichitas (i. e., Pawnee
Picts) and the Arikaras. ... The true Pawnee territory till as
late as 1833 may be described as extending from the Niobrara
south to the Arkansas. They frequently hunted considerably
beyond the Arkansas; tradition says as far as the Canadian.
... On the east they claimed to the Missouri, though in
eastern Nebraska, by a sort of tacit permit, the Otoes,
Poncas, and Omahas along that stream occupied lands extending
as far west as the Elkhorn. In Kansas, also, east of the Big
Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct control, as
several remnants of tribes, the Wyandots, Delawares,
Kickapoos, and Iowas, had been settled there and were living
under the guardianship of the United States. ... On the west
their grounds were marked by no natural boundary, but may
perhaps be described by a line drawn from the mouth of Snake
River on the Niobrara southwest to the North Platte, thence
south to the Arkansas. ... It is not to be supposed, however,
that they held altogether undisturbed possession of this
territory. On the north they were incessantly harassed by
various bands of the Dakotas, while upon the south the Osages,
Comanches, Cheyennes, Arapahoes and Kiowas (the last three
originally northern tribes) were equally relentless in their
hostility. ... In 1833 the Pawnees surrendered to the United
States their claim upon all the above described territory
lying south of the Platte. In 1858 all their remaining
territory was ceded, except a reserve 30 miles long and 15
wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, its eastern limit
beginning at Beaver Creek. In 1874 they sold this tract and
removed to a reserve secured for them by the Government in the
Indian Territory, between the Arkansas and Cimarron at their
junction."
J. B. Dunbar, The Pawnee Indians (Magazine of American
History, April, 1880, v.4).
ALSO IN
G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee Hero Stories. D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 95-97. J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, page 59.
See, also, above: ADAIS and BLACKFEET.
{99}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Payaguas.
See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pehuelches, or Puelts.
See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Penacooks, or Pawtucket Indians.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Peorias.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pequots.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
and below: SHAWANESE;
also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Piankishaws.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Piegans.
See above: BLACKFEET.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Piman Family.
"Only a small portion of the territory occupied by this family
is included within the United States, the greater portion
being in Mexico, where it extends to the Gulf of California.
The family is represented in the United States by three
tribes, Pima alta, Sobaipuri, and Papago. The former have
lived for at least two centuries with the Maricopa on the Gila
River about 160 miles from the mouth. The Sobaipuri occupied
the Santa Cruz and San Pedro Rivers, tributaries of the Gila,
but are no longer known. The Papago territory is much more
extensive and extends to the south across the border."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 98-99.
See below: PUEBLOS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pimenteiras.
See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Piru.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pit River Indians.
See above: MODOCS (KLAMATHS), &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Piutes.
See below: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pokanokets, or Wampanoags.
See above:
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;
also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675; 1675; 1676-1678 (KING
PHILIP'S WAR).
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Ponkas, or Puncas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY;
and above: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Popolocas.
See above: CHONTALS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pottawatomies.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, OJIBWAS, and SACS, &c.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Powhatan Confederacy.
"At the time of the first settlement by the Europeans, it has
been estimated that there were not more than 20,000 Indians
within the limits of the State of Virginia. Within a circuit
of 60 miles from Jamestown, Captain Smith says there were
about 5,000 souls, and of these scarce 1,500 were warriors.
The whole territory between the mountains and the sea was
occupied by more than 40 tribes, 30 of whom were united in a
confederacy under Powhatan, whose dominions, hereditary and
acquired by conquest, comprised the whole country between the
rivers James and Potomac, and extended into the interior as
far as the falls of the principal rivers. Campbell, in his
History of Virginia, states the number of Powhatan's subjects
to have been 8,000. Powhatan was a remarkable man; a sort of
savage Napoleon, who, by the force of his character and the
superiority of his talents, had raised himself from the rank
of a petty chieftain to something of imperial dignity and
power. He had two places of abode, one called Powhatan, where
Richmond now stands, and the other at Werowocomoco, on the
north side of York River, within the present county of
Gloucester. ... Besides the large confederacy of which
Powhatan was the chief, there were two others, with which that
was often at war. One of these, called the Mannahoacs,
consisted of eight tribes, and occupied the country between
the Rappahannoc and York rivers; the other, consisting of five
tribes, was called the Monacans, and was settled between York and
James rivers above the Falls. There were also, in addition to
these, many scattering and independent tribes."
G. S. Hillard, Life of Captain John Smith
(Library of Am. Biog.), chapter 4.
"The English invested savage life with all the
dignity of European courts. Powhatan was styled 'King,' or
'Emperor,' his principal warriors were lords of the kingdom,
his wives were queens, his daughter was a 'princess,' and his
cabins were his various seats of residence. ... In his younger
days Powhatan had been a great warrior. Hereditarily, he was
the chief or werowance of eight tribes; through conquest his
dominions had been extended. ... The name of his nation and
the Indian appellation of the James River was Powhatan. He
himself possessed several names."
E. Eggleston and L. E. Seelye, Pocahontas, chapter 3.
ALSO IN
Captain John Smith, Description of Virginia, and General
Historie of Virginia. (Arber's reprint of Works, pages 65 and
360).
See, also, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Puans.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pueblos.
"The non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples
of New Mexico and Arizona ... I call the Pueblos, or
Townspeople, from pueblo, town, population, people, a name
given by the Spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as
were found, when first discovered, permanently located in
comparatively well-built towns. Strictly speaking, the term
Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along the banks
of the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries between
latitudes 34° 45' and 36° 30', and although the name is
employed as a general appellation for this division, it will
be used, for the most part, only in its narrower and popular
sense. In this division, besides the before mentioned Pueblos
proper, are embraced the Moquis, or villagers of eastern
Arizona, and the non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower
Gila river,--the Pimas, Maricopas, Papagos, and cognate
tribes. The country of the Townspeople, if we may credit
Lieutenant Simpson, is one of 'almost universal barrenness,'
yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of the agricultural
nations, though dry, is more generally productive. The fame of
this so-called civilization reached Mexico at an early day ...
in exaggerated rumors of great cities to the north, which
prompted the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1539, of Coronado
in 1540, and of Espejo in 1586 [1583]. These adventurers
visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of
Quivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great riches
were said to exist. The name of Quivira was afterwards applied
by them to one or more of the pueblo cities. The name Cibola,
from 'Cibolo,' Mexican bull, 'bos bison,' or wild ox of New
Mexico, where the Spaniards first encountered buffalo, was
given to seven of the towns which were afterwards known as the
Seven Cities of Cibola. But most of the villages known at the
present day were mentioned in the reports of the early
expeditions by their present names.
{100}
... The towns of the Pueblos are essentially unique, and are
the dominant feature of these aboriginals. Some of them are
situated in valleys, others on mesas; sometimes they are
planted on elevations almost inaccessible, reached only by
artificial grades, or by steps cut in the solid rock. Some of
the towns are of an elliptical shape, while others are square,
a town being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a
Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by three
or four buildings of from 300 to 400 feet in length, and about
150 feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories
of from eight to nine feet each in height. ... The stories are
built in a series of gradations or retreating surfaces,
decreasing in size as they rise, thus forming a succession of
terraces. In some of the towns these terraces are on both
sides of the building; in others they face only towards the
outside; while again in others they are on the inside. These
terraces are about six feet wide, and extend around the three
or four sides of the square, forming a walk for the occupants
of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the story
beneath; so with the stories above. As there is no inner
communication with one another, the only means of mounting to
them is by ladders which stand at convenient distances along
the several rows of terraces, and they may be drawn up at
pleasure, thus cutting off all unwelcome intrusion. The
outside walls of one or more of the lower stories are entirely
solid, having no openings of any kind, with the exception of,
in some towns, a few loopholes. ... To enter the rooms on the
ground floor from the outside, one must mount the ladder to
the first balcony or terrace, then descend through a trap door
in the floor by another ladder on the inside. ... The several
stories of these huge structures are divided into
multitudinous compartments of greater or less size, which are
apportioned to the several families of the tribe."
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 5.
"There can be no doubt that Cibola is to be looked for in New
Mexico. ... We cannot ... refuse to adopt the views of General
Simpson and of Mr. W. W. H. Davis, and to look at the pueblo
of Zuni as occupying, if not the actual site, at least one of
the sites within the tribal area of the Seven Cities of
Cibola. Nor can we refuse to identify Tusayan with the Moqui
district, and Acuco with Acoma."
A. F. Bandelier, Historical Introduction to Studies
among the Sedentary Indians of N. Mexico (Papers of the
Archœology Institute of America: American Series,
volume 1).
ALSO IN
J. H. Simpson, The March of Coronado.
L. H. Morgan, Houses and House-life of the Am.
Aborigines (Contributions to N. Am. Ethnology, volume 4),
chapter 6.
F. H. Cushing, My Adventures in Zuñi
(Century, volume 3-4).
F. H. Cushing, Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology (1882-83), pages 473-480.
F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the Southwest,
chapter 10.
See, also, AMERICA, PREHISTORIC,
and above: PIMAN FAMILY and KERESAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Pujunan Family.
"The following tribes were placed in this group by Latham:
Pujuni, Secumne, Tsamak of Hale, and the Cushna of
Schoolcraft. The name adopted for the family is the name of a
tribe given by Hale. This was one of the two races into which,
upon the information of Captain Sutter as derived by Mr. Dana,
all the Sacramento tribes were believed to be divided. 'These
races resembled one another in every respect but language.'
... The tribes of this family have been carefully studied by
Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all we know of their
distribution. They occupied the eastern bank of the Sacramento
in California, beginning some 80 or 100 miles from its mouth,
and extended northward to within a short distance of Pit
River."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 99-100.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Puncas, or Ponkas.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY:
and above: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Purumancians.
See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Quapaws.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Quelches.
See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Querandis, or Pehuelches, or Puelts.
See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Quiches.--Cakchiquels.
"Of the ancient races of America, those which approached the
nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dialects of a
tongue, which from its principal members has been called the
Maya Quiche linguistic stock. Even to-day, it is estimated
that half a million persons use these dialects. They are
scattered over Yucatan, Guatemala, and the adjacent territory,
and one branch formerly occupied the hot lowlands on the Gulf
of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz. The so-called 'metropolitan'
dialects are those spoken relatively near the city of
Guatemala, and include the Cakchiquel, the Quiche, the
Pokonchi and the Tzutuhill. They are quite closely allied, and
are mutually intelligible, resembling each other about as much
as did in ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic and Doric dialects.
... The civilization of these people was such that they used
various mnemonic signs, approaching our alphabet, to record
and recall their mythology and history. Fragments, more or
less complete, of these traditions have been preserved. The
most notable of them is the national legend of the Quiches of
Guatemala, the so-called Popol Vuh. It was written at an
unknown date in the Quiche dialect, by a native who was
familiar with the ancient records."
D. G. Brinton, Essays of an Americanist, page 104.
ALSO IN,
D. G. Brinton, Annals of the Cakchiquels.
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States,
chapter 11.
See, also, above: MAYAS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Quichuas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Quijo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Quoratean Family.
"The tribes occupy both banks of the lower Klamath from a
range of hills a little above Happy Camp to the junction of
the Trinity, and the Salmon River from its mouth to its
sources. On the north, Quoratean tribes extended to the
Athapascan territory near the Oregon line."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 101.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Rapid Indians.
A name applied by various writers to the Arapahoes, and other
tribes.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Raritans.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Remo.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Rogue River Indians.
See above: MODOCS, ETC.
See Note, Appendix E.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Rucanas.
See PERU.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sabaja.
See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.
{101}
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sacs (Sauks), Foxes, etc.
"The Sauks or Saukies (White Clay), and Foxes or Outagamies,
so called by the Europeans and Algonkins, but whose true name
is Musquakkiuk (Red Clay), are in fact but one nation. The
French missionaries on coming first in contact with them, in
the year 1665, at once found that they spoke the same
language, and that it differed from the Algonkin, though
belonging to the same stock; and also that this language was
common to the Kickapoos, and to those Indians they called
Maskontens. This last nation, if it ever had an existence as a
distinct tribe, has entirely disappeared. But we are informed
by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft corroborates the fact, that
the word 'Mascontenck' means a country without woods, a
prairie. The name Mascontens was therefore used to designate
'prairie Indians.' And it appears that they consisted
principally of Sauks and Kickapoos, with an occasional mixture
of Potowotamies and Miamis, who probably came there to hunt
the Buffalo. The country assigned to those Mascontens lay
south of the Fox River of Lake Michigan and west of Illinois
River. ... When first discovered, the Sauks and Foxes had
their seats toward the southern extremity of Green Bay, on Fox
River, and generally farther east than the country which they
lately occupied. ... By the treaty of 1804, the Sauks and
Foxes ceded to the United States all their lands east of ...
the Mississippi. ... The Kickapoos by various treaties, 1809
to 1819, have also ceded all their lands to the United States.
They claimed all the country between the Illinois River and
the Wabash, north of the parallel of latitude passing by the
mouth of the Illinois and south of the Kankakee River. ... The
territory claimed by the Miamis and Piankishaws may be
generally stated as having been bounded eastwardly by the
Maumee River of Lake Erie, and to have included all the
country drained by the Wabash. The Piankishaws occupied the
country bordering on the Ohio."
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia
Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2.
The Mascontens, or Mascoutins, "seldom appear alone, but
almost always in connection with their kindred, the Ottagamies
or Foxes and the Kickapoos, and like them bear a character for
treachery and deceit. The three tribes may have in earlier
days formed the Fire-Nation [of the early French writers],
but, as Gallatin observes in the Archæologia Americana, it is
very doubtful whether the Mascoutins were ever a distinct
tribe. If this be so, and there is no reason to reject it, the
disappearance of the name will not be strange."
J. G. Shea, Brief Researches Respecting the Mascoutins
(Schoolcraft's Information Respecting Indian Tribes,
part 4, page 245).
See above, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
For an account of the Black Hawk War
See Illinois, A. D. 1832.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sahaptins.
See above: NEZ PERCÉS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Salinan Family.
This name is given by Major Powell to the San Antonio and San
Miguel dialects spoken by two tribes on the Salinas River,
Monterey County, California.
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 101.
See ESSELENIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Salishan Family.
See above: FLATHEADS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sanhikans, or Mincees.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sans Arcs.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES
Santees.
See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.
See Note. Appendix E.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sarcee (Tinneh).
See above: BLACKFEET.
See Note. Appendix E.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sastean Family.
"The single tribe upon the language of which Hale based his
name was located by him to the southwest of the Lutuami or
Klamath tribes. ... The former territory of the Sastean family
is the region drained by the Klamath River and its tributaries
from the western base of the Cascade range to the point where
the Klamath flows through the ridge of hills east of Happy
Camp, which forms the boundary between the Sastean and the
Quoratean families. In addition to this region of the Klamath,
the Shasta extended over the Siskiyou range northward as far as
Ashland, Oregon:"
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 106.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Savannahs.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Seminoles.
"The term 'semanóle,' or 'isti Simanóle,' signifies
'separatish' or 'runaway,' and as a tribal name points to the
Indians who left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek
settlements, for Florida, to live, hunt, and fish there in
independence. The term does not mean 'wild,' 'savage,' as
frequently stated; if applied now in this sense to animals, it
is because of its original meaning, 'what has become a
runaway.' ... The Seminoles of modern times are a people
compounded of the following elements: separatists from the
Lower Creek and Hitchiti towns; remnants of tribes partly
civilized by the Spaniards; Yamassi Indians, and some negroes.
... The Seminoles were always regarded as a sort of outcasts
by the Creek tribes from which they had seceded, and no doubt
there were reasons for this. ... These Indians showed, like
the Creeks, hostile intentions towards the thirteen states
during and after the Revolution, and conjointly with the Upper
Creeks on Tallapoosa river concluded a treaty of friendship
with the Spaniards at Pensacola in May, 1784. Although under
Spanish control, the Seminoles entered into hostilities with
the Americans in 1793 and 1812. In the latter year Payne míko
['King Payne'] was killed in a battle at Alachua, and his
brother, the influential Bowlegs, died soon after. These
unruly tribes surprised and massacred American settlers on the
Satilla river, Georgia, in 1817, and another conflict began,
which terminated in the destruction of the Mikasuki and
Suwanee river towns of the Seminoles by General Jackson, in
April, 1818. [See FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.] After the cession
of Florida, and its incorporation into the American Union
(1819), the Seminoles gave up all their territory by the
treaty of Fort Moultrie, Sept. 18th, 1823, receiving in
exchange goods and annuities. When the government concluded to
move these Indians west of the Mississippi river, a treaty of
a conditional character was concluded with them at Payne's
landing, in 1832. The larger portion were removed, but the
more stubborn part dissented, and thus gave origin to one of
the gravest conflicts which ever occurred between Indians and
whites. The Seminole war began with the massacre of Major
Dade's command near Wahoo swamp, December 28th, 1835, and
continued with unabated fury for five years, entailing an
immense expenditure of money and lives. [See FLORIDA: A. D.
1835-1843.] A number of Creek warriors joined the hostile
Seminoles in 1836. A census of the Seminoles taken in 1822
gave a population of 3,899, with 800 negroes belonging to
them. The population of the Seminoles in the Indian Territory
amounted to 2,667 in 1881. ... There are some Seminoles now in
Mexico, who went there with their negro slaves."
A. S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians,
volume 1, part 1, section 2.
{102}
"Ever since the first settlement of these Indians in Florida
they have been engaged in a strife with the whites. ... In the
unanimous judgment of unprejudiced writers, the whites have
ever been in the wrong."
D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula,
page 148.
"There were in Florida, October 1, 1880, of the Indians
commonly known as Seminole, 208. They constituted 37 families,
living in 22 camps, which were gathered into five widely
separated groups or settlements. ... This people our
Government has never been able to conciliate or to conquer.
... The Seminole have always lived within our borders as
aliens. It is only of late years, and through natural
necessities, that any friendly intercourse of white man and
Indian has been secured. ... The Indians have appropriated for
their service some of the products of European civilization,
such as weapons, implements, domestic utensils, fabrics for
clothing, &c. Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which
they received long ago from the teaching of Spanish
missionaries, and, in the southern settlements, excepting some
few Spanish words, the Seminole have accepted and appropriated
practically nothing from the white man."
C. MacCauley, The Seminole Indians of Florida (Fifth
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84),
introduction and chapter 4.
ALSO IN
J. T. Sprague, The Florida War.
S. G. Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America.
book 4, chapter 6-21.
See, also, above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Senecas; their name.
"How this name originated is a 'vexata quæstio' among
Indo-antiquarians and etymologists. The least plausible
supposition is, that the name has any reference to the
moralist Seneca. Some have supposed it to be a corruption of
the Dutch term for vermillion, cinebar, or cinnabar, under the
assumption that the Senecas, being the most warlike of the
Five Nations, used that pigment more than the others, and thus
gave origin to the name. This hypothesis is supported by no
authority. ... The name 'Sennecas' first appears on a Dutch
map of 1616, and again on Jean de Laet's map of 1633. ... It
is claimed by some that the word may be derived from
'Sinnekox,' the Algonquin name of a tribe of Indians spoken of
in Wassenaer's History of Europe, on the authority of Peter
Barentz, who traded with them about the year 1626. ... Without
assuming to solve the mystery, the writer contents himself
with giving some data which may possibly aid others in
arriving at a reliable conclusion. [Here follows a discussion
of the various forms of name by which the Senecas designated
themselves and were known to the Hurons, from whom the Jesuits
first heard of them.] By dropping the neuter prefix O, the
national title became 'Nan-do-wah-gaah,' or 'The great hill
people,' as now used by the Senecas. ... If the name Seneca
can legitimately be derived from the Seneca word
'Nan-do-wah-gaah' ... it can only be done by prefixing 'Son,'
as was the custom of the Jesuits, and dropping all unnecessary
letters. It would then form the word 'Son-non-do-wa-ga,' the
first two and last syllables of which, if the French sounds of
the letters are given, are almost identical in pronunciation
with Seneca. The chief difficulty, however, would be in the
disposal of the two superfluous syllables. They may have been
dropped in the process of contraction so common in the
composition of Indian words--a result which would be quite
likely to occur to a Seneca name, in its transmission through
two other languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The foregoing
queries and suggestions are thrown out for what they are
worth, in the absence of any more reliable theory."
O. H. Marshall, Historical Writings, page 231
See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY, and HURONS, &c.
See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR,
For an account of Sullivan's expedition against the Senecas,
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1779 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Shacaya.
See above: ANDESIANS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Shahaptian Family.
See above: NEZ PERCÉS.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES
Shastas.
See above: SASTEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Shawanese, Shawnees, or Shawanoes.
"Adjacent to the Lenape [or Delawares--see above], and
associated with them in some of the most notable passages of
their history, dwelt the Shawanoes, the Chaouanons of the
French, a tribe of bold, roving, and adventurous spirit. Their
eccentric wanderings, their sudden appearances and
disappearances, perplex the antiquary, and defy research; but
from various scattered notices, we may gather that at an early
period they occupied the valley of the Ohio; that, becoming
embroiled with the Five Nations, they shared the defeat of the
Andastes, and about the year 1672 fled to escape destruction.
Some found an asylum in the country of the Lenape, where they
lived tenants at will of the Five Nations; others sought
refuge in the Carolinas and Florida, where, true to their
native instincts, they soon came to blows with the owners of
the soil. Again, turning northwards, they formed new
settlements in the valley of the Ohio, where they were now
suffered to dwell in peace, and where, at a later period, they
were joined by such of their brethren as had found refuge
among the Lenape."
F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.
"The Shawnees were not found originally in Ohio, but migrated
there after 1750. They were called Chaouanons by the French
and Shawanoes by the English. The English name Shawano changed
to Shawanee, and recently to Shawnee. Chaouanon and Shawano
are obviously attempts to represent the same sound by the
orthography of the two respective languages. ... Much industry
has been used by recent writers, especially by Dr. Brinton, to
trace this nomadic tribe to its original home; but I think
without success. ... We first find the Shawano in actual
history about the year 1660, and living along the Cumberland
river, or the Cumberland and Tennessee. Among the conjectures
as to their earlier history, the greatest probability lies for
the present with the earliest account--the account given by
Perrot, and apparently obtained by him from the Shawanoes
themselves, about the year 1680--that they formerly lived by
the lower lakes, and were driven thence by the Five Nations."
M. F. Force, Some Early Notices of the Indians of
Ohio.
"Their [the Shawnee's] dialect is more akin to the Mohegan
than to the Delaware, and when, in 1692, they first appeared
in the area of the Eastern Algonkin Confederacy, they came as
the friends and relatives of the former. They were divided
into four bands"--Piqua, properly Pikoweu, Mequachake,
Kiscapokoke, Chilicothe. "Of these, that which settled in
Pennsylvania was the Pikoweu, who occupied and gave their name
to the Pequa valley in Lancaster county. According to ancient
Mohegan tradition, the New England Pequods were members of
this band."
D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and their Legends, chapter 2.
D. G. Brinton, The Shawnees and their Migrations (History
Magazine, volume 10, 1866).
{103}
"The Shawanese, whose villages were on the western bank [of
the Susquehanna] came into the valley [of Wyoming] from their
former localities, at the 'forks of the Delaware' (the
junction of the Delaware and Lehigh, at Easton), to which
point they had been induced at some remote period to emigrate
from their earlier home, near the mouth of the river Wabash,
in the 'Ohio region,' upon the invitation of the Delawares.
This was Indian diplomacy, for the Delawares were desirous
(not being upon the most friendly terms with the Mingos, or
Six Nations) to accumulate a force against those powerful
neighbors. But, as might be expected, they did not long live
in peace with their new allies. ... The Shawanese [about 1755,
or soon after] were driven out of the valley by their more
powerful neighbors, the Delawares, and the conflict which
resulted in their leaving it grew out of, or was precipitated
by, a very trifling incident. While the warriors of the
Delawares were engaged upon the mountains in a hunting
expedition, a number of squaws or female Indians from
Maughwauwame were gathering wild fruits along the margin of
the river below the town, where they found a number of
Shawanese squaws and their children, who had crossed the river
in their canoes upon the same business. A child belonging to
the Shawanese having taken a large grasshopper, a quarrel
arose among the children for the possession of it, in which
their mothers soon took part. ... The quarrel became general.
... Upon the return of the warriors both tribes prepared for
battle. ... The Shawanese ... were not able to sustain the
conflict, and, after the loss of about half their tribe, the
remainder were forced to flee to their own side of the river,
shortly after which they abandoned their town and removed to
the Ohio." This war between the Delawares and Shawanese has
been called the Grasshopper War.
L. H. Miner, The Valley of Wyoming, page 32.
See, also, above, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and DELAWARES
See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1765-1768;
For an account of "Lord Dunmore's War",
See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sheepeaters (Tukuarika).
See below: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sheyennes.
See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Shoshonean Family.
"This important family occupied a large part of the great
interior basin of the United States. Upon the north Shoshonean
tribes extended far into Oregon, meeting Shahaptian territory
on about the 44th parallel or along the Blue Mountains. Upon
the northeast the eastern limits of the pristine habitat of
the Shoshonean tribes are unknown. The narrative of Lewis and
Clarke contains the explicit statement that the Shoshoni bands
encountered upon the Jefferson River, whose summer home was upon
the head waters of the Columbia, formerly lived within their
own recollection in the plains to the east of the Rocky
Mountains, whence they were driven to their mountain retreats
by the Minnetaree (Atsina), who had obtained firearms. ...
Later a division of the Bannock held the finest portion of
Southwestern Montana, whence apparently they were being pushed
westward across the mountains by Blackfeet. Upon the east the
Tukuarika or Sheepeaters held the Yellowstone Park country,
where they were bordered by the Siouan territory, while the
Washaki occupied southwestern Wyoming. Nearly the entire
mountainous part of Colorado was held by the several bands of
the Ute, the eastern and southeastern parts of the State being
held respectively by the Arapaho and Cheyenne (Algonquian),
and the Kaiowe (Kiowan). To the southeast the Ute country
included the northern drainage of the San Juan, extending
farther east a short distance into New Mexico. The Comanche
division of the family extended farther east than any other.
... Bourgemont found a Comanche tribe on the upper Kansas
River in 1724. According to Pike the Comanche territory
bordered the Kaiowe on the north, the former occupying the
head waters of the Upper Red River, Arkansas and Rio Grande.
How far to the southward Shoshonean tribes extended at this
early period is not known, though the evidence tends to show
that they raided far down into Texas, to the territory they
have occupied in more recent years, viz., the extensive plains
from the Rocky Mountains eastward into Indian Territory and
Texas to about 97°. Upon the south Shoshonean territory was
limited generally by the Colorado River ... while the Tusayan
(Moki) had established their seven pueblos ... to the east of
the Colorado Chiquito. In the southwest Shoshonean tribes had
pushed across California, occupying a wide band of country to
the Pacific."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report., Bureau of
Ethnology, pages 109-110.
"The Pah Utes occupy the greater part of Nevada, and extend
southward. ... The Pi Utes or Piutes inhabit Western Utah,
from Oregon to New Mexico. ... The Gosh Utes [Gosuites]
inhabit the country west of Great Salt Lake, and extend to the
Pah Utes."
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States,
volume 1, chapter 4.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Siksikas, or Sisikas.
See above: BLACKFEET.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Siouan Family.--Sioux.
See Note, Appendix E.
"The nations which speak the Sioux language may be considered,
in reference both to their respective dialects and to their
geographical position, as consisting of four subdivisions,
viz., the Winnebagoes; the Sioux proper and the Assiniboins;
the Minetare group; and the Osages and other southern kindred
tribes. The Winnebagoes, so called by the Algonkins, but
called Puans and also Otchagras by the French, and Horoje
('fish-eaters') by the Omahaws and other southern tribes, call
themselves Hochungorah, or the 'Trout' nation. The Green Bay
of Lake Michigan derives its French name from theirs (Baye des
Puans). ... According to the War Department they amount [1836]
to 4,600 souls, and appear to cultivate the soil to a
considerable degree. Their principal seats are on the Fox
River of Lake Michigan, and towards the heads of the Rock
River of the Mississippi. ... The Sioux proper, or
Naudowessies, names given to them by the Algonkins and the
French, call themselves Dahcotas, and sometimes 'Ochente
Shakoans,' or the Seven Fires, and are divided into seven
bands or tribes, closely connected together, but apparently
independent of each other. They do not appear to have been
known to the French before the year 1660.
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... The four most eastern tribes of the Dahcotas are known by
the name of the Mendewahkantoan, or 'Gens du Lac,' Wahkpatoan
and Wahkpakotoan, or 'People of the Leaves,' and Sisitoans.
... The three westerly tribes, the Yanktons, the Yanktonans,
and the Tetons, wander between the Mississippi and the
Missouri. ... The Assiniboins (Stone Indians), as they are
called by the Algonkins, are a Dahcota tribe separated from
the rest of the nation, and on that account called Hoha or
'Rebels,' by the other Sioux. They are said to have made part
originally of the Yanktons. ... Another tribe, called
Sheyennes or Cheyennes, were at no very remote period seated
on the left bank of the Red River of Lake Winnipek. ... Carver
reckons them as one of the Sioux tribes; and Mackenzie informs
us that they were driven away by the Sioux. They now [1836]
live on the headwaters of the river Sheyenne, a southwestern
tributary of the Missouri. ... I have been, however, assured
by a well-informed person who trades with them that they speak
a distinct language, for which there is no European
interpreter. ... The Minetares (Minetaree and Minetaries)
consist of three tribes, speaking three different languages,
which belong to a common stock. Its affinities with the
Dahcota are but remote, but have appeared sufficient to
entitle them to be considered as of the same family. Two of
those tribes, the Mandanes, whose number does not exceed
1,500, and the stationary Minetares, amounting to 3,000 souls,
including those called Annahawas, cultivate the soil, and live
in villages situated on or near the Missouri, between 47° and
48° north latitude. ... The third Minetare tribe, is that
known by the name of the Crow or Upsaroka [or Absaroka]
nation, probably the Keeheetsas of Lewis and Clarke. They are
an erratic tribe, who hunt south of the Missouri, between the
Little Missouri and the southeastern branches of the
Yellowstone River. ... The southern Sioux consist of eight
tribes, speaking four, or at most five, kindred dialects.
Their territory originally extended along the Mississippi,
from below the mouth of the Arkansas to the forty-first degree
of north latitude. ... Their hunting grounds extend as far
west as the Stony Mountains; but they all cultivate the soil,
and the most westerly village on the Missouri is in about 100°
west longitude. The three most westerly tribes are the Quappas
or Arkansas, at the mouth of the river of that name, and the
Osages and Kansas, who inhabited the country south of the
Missouri and of the river Kansas. ... The Osages, properly
Wausashe, were more numerous and powerful than any of the
neighbouring tribes, and perpetually at war with all the other
Indians, without excepting the Kansas, who speak the same
dialect with themselves. They were originally divided into
Great and Little Osages; but about forty years ago almost
one-half of the nation, known by the name of Chaneers, or
Clermont's Band, separated from the rest, and removed to the
river Arkansa. The villages of those several subdivisions are
now [1836] on the headwaters of the river Osage, and of the
Verdigris, a northern tributary stream of the Arkansa. They
amount to about 5,000 souls, and have ceded a portion of their
lands to the United States, reserving to themselves a
territory on the Arkansa, south of 38° North latitude,
extending from 95° to 100° West longitude, on a breadth of 45
to 50 miles. The territory allotted to the Cherokees, the
Creeks and the Choctaws lies south of that of the Osage. ...
The Kansas, who have always lived on the river of that name,
have been at peace with the Osage for the last thirty years,
and intermarry with them. They amount to 1,500 souls, and
occupy a tract of about 3,000,000 acres. ... The five other
tribes of this subdivision are the Ioways, or Pahoja (Grey
Snow), the Missouris or Neojehe, the Ottoes, or Wahtootahtah,
the Omahaws, or Mahas, and the Puncas. ... All the nations
speaking languages belonging to the Great Sioux Family may ...
be computed at more than 50,000 souls."
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archœologia
Americana, volume 2), section 4.
"Owing to the fact that 'Sioux' is a word of reproach and
means snake or enemy, the term has been discarded by many
later writers as a family designation, and 'Dakota,' which
signifies friend or ally, has been employed in its stead. The
two words are, however, by no means properly synonymous. The
term 'Sioux' was used by Gallatin in a comprehensive or family
sense and was applied to all the tribes collectively known to
him to speak kindred dialects of a widespread language. It is
in this sense only, as applied to the linguistic family, that
the term is here employed. The term 'Dahcota' (Dakota) was
correctly applied by Gallatin to the Dakota tribes proper as
distinguished from the other members of the linguistic family
who are not Dakotas in a tribal sense. The use of the term
with this signification should be perpetuated. It is only
recently that a definite decision has been reached respecting
the relationship of the Catawba and Woccon, the latter an
extinct tribe known to have been linguistically related to the
Catawba. Gallatin thought that he was able to discern some
affinities of the Catawban language with 'Muskhogee and even
with Choctaw,' though these were not sufficient to induce him
to class them together. Mr. Gatschet was the first to call
attention to the presence in the Catawba language of a
considerable number of words having a Siouan affinity.
Recently Mr. Dorsey has made a critical examination of all the
Catawba linguistic material available, which has been
materially increased by the labors of Mr. Gatschet, and the
result seems to justify its inclusion as one of the dialects
of the widespread Siouan family." The principal tribes in the
Siouan Family named by Major Powell are the Dakota (including
Santee, Sisseton, Wahpeton, Yankton, Yanktonnais, Teton,--the
latter embracing Brulé, Sans Arcs, Blackfeet, Minneconjou, Two
Kettles, Ogalala, Uncpapa), Assinaboin, Omaha, Ponca, Kaw,
Osage, Quapaw, Iowa, Otoe, Missouri, Winnebago, Mandan, Gros
Ventres, Crow, Tutelo, Biloxi (see MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY), Catawba
and Woccon.
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, page 112.
ALSO IN
J. O. Dorsey, Migrations of Siouan Tribes (American
Naturalist, volume 20, March).
J. O. Dorsey, Biloxi Indians of Louisiana (V. P.
address A. A. A. S., 1893).
See, above: HIDATSA.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Sissetons.
See above SIOUAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Six Nations.
See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.
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AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Skittagetan Family.
"A family designation ... retained for the tribes of the Queen
Charlotte Archipelago which have usually been called Haida.
From a comparison of the vocabularies of the Haida language
with others of the neighboring Koluschan family, Dr. Franz
Boas is inclined to consider that the two are genetically
related. The two languages possess a considerable number of
words in common, but a more thorough investigation is
requisite for the settlement of the question."
J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of
Ethnology, page 120.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Snakes.
See above: SNOSHONEAN FAMILY.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Stockbridge Indians.
"The Stockbridge Indians were originally a part of the
Housatannuck Tribe [Mohegans], to whom the Legislature of
Massachusetts granted or secured a township [afterward called
Stockbridge] in the year 1736. Their number was increased by
Wappingers and Mohikanders, and perhaps also by Indians
belonging to several other tribes, both of New England and New
York. Since their removal to New Stockbridge and Brotherton,
in the western parts of New York, they have been joined by
Mohegans and other Indians from East Connecticut, and even
from Rhode Island and Long Island."
A. Gallatin, Synopsis of Indian Tribes (Archæologia
Americana, volume 2), page 35.
ALSO IN
A. Holmes, Annals of America, 1736 (volume 2).
S. G. Drake, Aboriginal Races, page 15.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
Susquehannas, or Andastes, or Conestogas.
"Dutch and Swedish writers speak of a tribe called Minquas;
... the French in Canada ... make frequent allusions to the
Gandastogués (more briefly Andastés), a tribe friendly to
their allies, the Hurons, and sturdy enemies of the Iroquois;
later still Pennsylvania writers speak of the Conestogas, the
tribe to which Logan belonged, and the tribe which perished at
the hands of the Paxton boys. Although Gallatin in his map,
followed by Bancroft, placed the Andastés near Lake Erie, my
researches led me to correct this, and identify the
Susquehannas, Minqua, Andastés or Gandastogués, and Conestogas
as being an the same tribe, the first name being apparently an
appellation given them by the Virginia tribes; the second that
given them by the Algonquins on the Delaware; while
Gandastogué as the French, or Conestoga as the English wrote
it, was their own tribal name, meaning cabin-pole men, Natio
Perticarum, from 'Andasta,' a cabin-pole. ... Prior to 1600
the Susquehannas and the Mohawks ... came into collision, and
the Susquehannas nearly exterminated the Mohawks in a war