Roman Empire, in "an extensive district of Brabant, which was
then known by the appellation of Toxandria, and may deserve to
be considered as the original seat of their Gallic monarchy. …
This name seems to be derived from the 'Toxandri' of Pliny,
and very frequently occurs in the histories of the middle age.
Toxandria was a country of woods and morasses, which extended
from the neighbourhood of Tongres to the conflux of the Vahal
and the Rhine."
E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 19, with foot-note.
See, also, GAUL: A. D. 355-361.
TOXARCHI, The.
The commanders of the Athenian archers and of the city-watch
(known as Scythians) were so called.
A. Boeckh,
Public Economy of Athens,
book 2, chapter 11.
TRACHIS.
TRACHINIA.
See GREECE: B. C. 480 (THERMOPYLÆ).
TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.
TRACTS FOR THE TIMES.
TRACT NINETY.
See OXFORD OR TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.
TRADES UNIONS.
See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.
TRAFALGAR, Naval Battle of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER).
TRAJAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 98-117.
TRAJAN'S WALL.
The Emperor Trajan "began a fortified line, afterwards
completed, from the Rhine to the Danube. This great work was
carried from Ratisbon to Mayence. It was known as Trajan's
Wall. It may still be traced to some extent by the marks of a
mound and a ditch."
Church and Brodribb,
Notes to the Germany of Tacitus,
chapter 29.
TRAMELI, The.
See LYCIANS.
TRANSALPINE.
Beyond the Alps, looking from the Roman standpoint.
TRANSLEITHANIA.
See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867.
TRANSOXANIA.
See BOKHARA.
TRANSPADANE GAUL.
Cisalpine Gaul north of the Padus, or Po.
See PADUS.
TRANSRHENANE.
Beyond the Rhine,—looking from the Roman standpoint; that is,
on the eastern and northern side of the Rhine.
TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, The.
See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.
TRANSYLVANIA: Early history.
See DACIA.
TRANSYLVANIA: The Huns in possession.
See HUNS: A. D. 433-453.
TRANSYLVANIA: 12th Century.
Conquest by Hungary.
Settlement of Germans.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1526-1567.
John Zapolya, the waivod, elected King of Hungary.
His contest with Ferdinand of Austria.
His appeal to the Turks.
The Sultan assumes suzerainty of the country.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526-1567.
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1567-1660.
Struggles between the Austrian and the Turk.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604; and 1606-1660.
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1575.
Stephen Batory, the Duke, elected King of Poland.
See POLAND: A. D. 1574-1590.
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D: 1599-1601.
Wallachian conquest.
See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES,
14-18TH CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, ETC.).
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1606.
Yoke of the Ottomans partly broken.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1595-1606.
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1660-1664.
Recovery of independence from the Turks.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1660-1664.
TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1699.
Ceded to the House of Austria by the Turks,
in the Treaty of Carlowitz.
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.
TRANSYLVANIA, The Kentucky colony of.
See KENTUCKY: A. D. 1765-1778.
TRAPPISTS.
The monks of La Trappe are often referred to as Trappists.
"This celebrated abbey was one of the most ancient belonging
to the Order of Cisteaux [the Cistercians]. It was established
[A. D. 1140] by Rotrou, the second count of Perche, and
undertaken to accomplish a vow made whilst in peril of
shipwreck." In the 17th century the monks had become
scandalous]y degenerate and dissolute. Their institution was
reformed by M. de Rancé, who assumed the direction as abbot in
1662, and who introduced the severe discipline for which the
monastery was afterwards famous. Among its rules was one of
absolute silence.
C. Lancelot,
A Tour to Alet and La Grande Chartreuse,
volume 1, pages 113-186.
{3122}
TRASIMENE, Lake, Battle of (B. C. 217).
See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.
TRASTEVERE.
Trastevere was a suburb of Rome "as early as the time of
Augustus; it now contains the oldest houses in Rome, which
belong to the 11th and 12th centuries."
B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on ancient Ethnography and Geography,
volume 2, page 103.
TRAUSI, The.
See THRACIANS.
TRAVENDAHL, Treaty of (1700).
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1697-1700.
TRAVENSTADT, Battle of (1706).
See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.
TREASON.
See MAJESTAS.
TREATIES.
The Treaties of which account is given in this work are so
numerous that no convenience would be served by collecting
references to them under this general heading. They are
severally indexed under the names by which they are
historically known.
TREATY PORTS, The.
See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1812.
TREBIA,
TREBBIA,
Battle of the.
See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.
Battle.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).
TREBIZOND:
Origin of the city.
"Trebizond, celebrated in the retreat of the Ten Thousand as
an ancient colony of Greeks, derived its wealth and splendour
from the munificence of the Emperor Hadrian, who had
constructed an artificial port on a coast left destitute by
nature of secure harbours. The city was large and populous."
E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 10.
TREBIZOND: A. D. 258.
Capture by the Goths.
See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.
TREBIZOND: A. D. 1204-1461.
The Greek empire.
"The empire of Trebizond was the creation of accident. … The
destruction of a distant central government, when
Constantinople was conquered by the Frank Crusaders, left
[the] provincial administration without the pivot on which it
had revolved. The conjuncture was seized by a young man, of
whom nothing was known but that he bore a great name, and was
descended from the worst tyrant in the Byzantine annals, This
youth grasped the vacant sovereignty, and, merely by assuming
the imperial title, and placing himself at the head of the
local administration, founded a new empire. Power changed its
name and its dwelling, but the history of the people was
hardly modified. The grandeur of the empire of Trebizond
exists only in romance. Its government owed its permanence to
its being nothing more than a continuation of a
long-established order of civil polity, and to its making no
attempt to effect any social revolution." The young man who
grasped the sovereignty of this Asiatic fragment of the
shattered Byzantine empire was Alexius, a grandson of
Andronicus I., the last emperor at Constantinople of the
family of Comnenos. This Alexius and his brother David, who
had been raised in obscurity at Constantinople, escaped from
the city before it was taken by the Crusaders, and fled to the
coast of Colchis, "where their paternal aunt, Thamar,
possessed wealth and influence. Assisted by her power, and by
the memory of their tyrannical grandfather, who had been
popular in the east of Asia Minor, they were enabled to
collect an army of Iberian mercenaries. At the head of this
force Alexios entered Trebizond in the month of April 1204,
about the time Constantinople fell into the hands of the
Crusaders. He had been proclaimed emperor by his army on
crossing the frontier. To mark that he was the legitimate
representative of the imperial family of Komnenos, and to
prevent his being confounded with the numerous descendants of
females, or with the family of the emperor Alexius III.
(Angelos), who had arrogated to themselves his name, he
assumed the designation of Grand-Komnenos. Wherever he
appeared, he was acknowledged as the lawful sovereign of the
Roman empire." For a time Alexius of Trebizond, with the help
of his brother David, extended his dominions in Asia Minor
with rapidity and ease, and he was brought very soon into
collision with the other Greek emperor, Theodore Lascaris, who
had established himself at Nicæa. It seemed likely, at first,
that Trebizond would become the dominant power; but the
movement of events which favored that one of the rival empires
was presently stayed, and then reversed, even though Alexius
took aid from the Latin emperor at Constantinople. Not many
years later, in fact, the empire of Trebizond evaded
extinction at the hands of the Turkish Sultan of Iconium, or
Roum, only by paying tribute and acknowledging vassalage to
that sovereign. For sixty years the so-called empire continued
in a tributary relationship to the Seljuk sultans and to the
grand khan of the Mongols who overthrew them in 1244. But, if
not a very substantial empire during that period, it seems to
have formed an exceedingly prosperous and wealthy commercial
power, controlling not only a considerable coast territory on
its own side of the Euxine, but also Cherson, Gothia, and all
the Byzantine possessions in the Tauric Chersonesos; and "so
close was the alliance of interest that these districts
remained dependent on the government of Trebizond until the
period of its fall." On the decline of the Mongol power, the
empire of Trebizond regained its independence in 1280, and
maintained it for nearly a century, when it was once more
compelled to pay tribute to the later Mongol conqueror, Timur.
At the end of the 14th century the little "empire" was reduced
to a strip of coast, barely forty miles wide, extending from
Batoun to Kerasunt, and the separated city of Oinaion, with
some territory adjoining it. But, within this small compass,
"few countries in Europe enjoyed as much internal tranquility,
or so great security for private property." The commerce of
Trebizond had continued to flourish, notwithstanding frequent
quarrels and hostilities with the Genoese, who were the chief
managers of its trade with the west. But the decay of the
empire, politically, commercially, and morally, was rapid in
its later years. First becoming tributary to the Ottoman
conqueror of Constantinople, it finally shared the fate of the
Byzantine capital. The city of Trebizond was surrendered to
Mohammed II. in 1461. Its last emperor, David, was permitted
to live for a time, with his family, in the European dominions
of the Turk; but after a few years, on some suspicion of a
plot, he was put to death with his seven sons, and their
bodies were cast unburied to the dogs. The wife and mother of
the dead—the fallen empress Helena—guarded them and dug a
grave for them with her own hands. The Christian population of
Trebizond was expelled from the city and mostly enslaved. Its
place was taken by a Moslem colony.
G. Finlay,
History of the Empire of Trebizond
(History of Greece and of the Empire of Trebizond).
{3123}
TREBONIAN LAW, The.
See ROME: B. C. 57-52.
TREK, The Great.
See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.
TREMECEN, The Kingdom of.
See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1516-1535.
TREMONT, The Name.
See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1630.
TRENT, The Council of.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563.
TRENT AFFAIR, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (NOVEMBER).
TRENTON: A. D. 1776.
The surprise of the Hessians.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1776-1777 WASHINGTON'S RETREAT.
----------TRÈVES: Start--------
TRÈVES:
Origin.
Trèves was originally the chief town of the Treviri, from whom
it derived its name. When the Romans established a colony
there they called it Augusta Trevirorum. In time, the Augusta
was dropped and Trevirorum became Trèves, or Trier.
See TREVIRI.
TRÈVES:
Under the Romans.
"The town of the Treveri, named Augusta probably from the
first emperor, soon gained the first place in the Belgic
province; if, still, in the time of Tiberius, Durocortorum of
the Remi (Rheims) is named the most populous place of the
province and the seat of the governors, an author from the
time of Claudius already assigns the primacy there to the
chief place of the Treveri. But Treves became the capital of
Gaul—we may even say of the West—only through the remodelling
of the imperial administration under Diocletian. After Gaul,
Britain and Spain were placed under one supreme
administration, the latter had its seat in Treves; and
thenceforth Treves was also, when the emperors stayed in Gaul,
their regular residence, and, as a Greek of the fifth century
says, the greatest city beyond the Alps."
T. Mommsen,
History of Rome,
book 8, chapter 3.
TRÈVES: A. D. 306.
The Ludi Francici at.
See FRANKS: A. D. 306.
TRÈVES: A. D. 364-376.
Capital of Valentinian and the Western Empire.
See ROM[E: A. D. 363-379.
TRÈVES: A. D. 402.
Abandoned by the Roman præfecture.
See BRITAIN: A. D. 407.
TRÈVES: A. D. 1125-1152.
Origin of the Electorate.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.
TRÈVES: A. D. 1675.
Taken from the French by the Imperialists.
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.
TRÈVES: A. D. 1689.
Threatened destruction by the French.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690.
TRÈVES: A. D. 1697.
Restored to the Empire.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.
TRÈVES: A. D. 1704.
Taken by Marlborough.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1704.
TRÈVES: A. D. 1801-1803.
Extinction of the Electorate.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.
----------TRÈVES: End--------
TREVILLIAN'S STATION, Battle of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA)
CAMPAIGNING IN THE SHENANDOAH.
TREVIRI, The.
The Treviri were one of the peoples of Gaul, in Cæsar's time,
"whose territory lay on the left bank of the Rhine and on both
sides of the Mosella (Mosel). Trier [ancient Treves] on the
Mosel was the head-quarters of the Treviri."
G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 8.
TREVISAN MARCHES, Tyranny of Eccelino di Romano in the.
See VERONA: A. D. 1230-1259.
TRIAD SOCIETY, OR
WATER-LILY SECT, The.
The most extensive of the many secret societies among the
Chinese is "the Tienti hwui, or San-hoh hwui, i. e. the Triad
Society. It was formerly known by the title of the Pih-lien
kiau, or Water-lily Sect, but having been proscribed by the
government, it sought by this alteration of name, and some
other slight changes, to evade the operation of the laws. In
fact, it still subsists in some of the remoter provinces under
its old name and organization. The known and indeed almost
openly avowed object of this society has been, for many years,
the overturn of the Mant-chou dynasty."
The Chinese Rebellion
(North American Review, July, 1854).
ALSO IN:
Abbé Huc,
Christianity in China, &c.
volume 2, pages 274-277.
H. A. Giles,
Historic China,
pages 395-399.
TRIAL BY COMBAT.
See WAGER OF BATTLE.
TRIANON TARIFF, The.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1806-1810.
TRIARII.
See LEGION, ROMAN.
TRIBE.
TRIBUS.
See ROME, THE BEGINNING.
TRIBES, Greek.
See PHYLÆ.
TRIBOCES, The.
A people who, in Cæsar's time, were established on both banks
of the Rhine, occupying the central part of the modern Grand
Duchy of Baden and the opposite region of Gaul.
Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, foot-note.
See, also, VANGIONES.
TRIBON, The.
A garment of thick cloth and small size worn by Spartan
youths, and sometimes by old men.
C. C. Felton,
Greece, Ancient and Modern,
course 2, lecture 7.
TRIBUNAL, The Revolutionary.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL.).
TRIBUNES, Consular, or Military.
See CONSULAR TRIBUNES.
TRIBUNES OF THE PLEBS.
See ROME: B. C. 494-492.
TRIBUNITIA, Potestas.
See POTESTAS TRIBUNITIA.
TRIBUTUM, The.
The tributum, a war-tax, collected from the Roman people in
the earlier periods of the Republic, was "looked upon as a
loan, and was returned on the termination of a successful war
out of the captured booty. … The principle that Rome was
justified in living at the expense of her subjects was
formally acknowledged when, in the year 167 B. C., the
tributum—the only direct tax which the Roman citizens paid—was
abolished, because the government could dispense with it after
the conquest of Macedonia. The entire burden and expense of
the administration were now put off upon the subjects."
W. Ihne,
History of Rome,
book 6, chapter 7 (volume 4).
TRICAMARON, Battle of (A. D. 533).
See VANDALS: A. D. 533-534.
TRICASSES.
The earlier name of the city of Troyes, France.
{3124}
TRICHINOPOLY:
Siege and relief (1751).
See INDIA: A. D. 1743-1752.
TRICOTEUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER).
TRIDENTINE COUNCIL.
The Council of Trent; so called from Tridentum, the ancient
Latin name of the town.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1537-1563.
TRIERARCHY.
See LITURGIES.
TRINACRIA.
The ancient Greek name of the island of Sicily.
TRINCOMALEE, Battle of (1767).
See INDIA: A. D. 1767-1769.
TRINIDAD: A. D. 1498.
Discovery by Columbus.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505.
TRINIDAD: A. D. 1801.
Acquisition by England.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.
TRINITY HOUSE.
"Perhaps there is throughout Britain no more interesting
example of the innate power and varied developments of the old
gild principle, certainly no more illustrious survival of it
to modern times, than the Trinity House. It stands out now as
an institution of high national importance, whose history is
entwined with the early progress of the British navy and the
welfare and increase of our sea craft and seamanship: in an
age when the tendency is to assume state control over all
matters of national interest the Trinity House, a voluntary
corporation, still fulfils the public functions to which its
faithful labours, through a long course of years, have
established its right and title. Although its earliest records
appear to be lost or burned, there seems to be no doubt that
Henry VIII's charter of 1514 was granted to a brotherhood
already existing. … In the charter itself we read that the
shipmen or mariners of England 'may anew erect' a gild, and
lands and tenements in Deptford Strand, already in possession,
are referred to. Similar bodies were formed in other places;
in the fourteenth century there was a shipmen's gild at Lynn
and another at Hull; in the fifteenth century the shipmen were
one of the crafts of York. Mr. Barrett mentions that they also
had houses at Newcastle and Dover. The Hull gild (which also
happens to have been dedicated to the Trinity) flourished for
seventy-four years before receiving its first royal grant. The
objects to which it was devoted were akin to those of the
Deptford House, and Henry VIII incorporated it in 1547, just
about the time when most gilds, not of crafts, were destroyed.
… The charitable side of the Trinity House functions has
always been considerable; in 1815 they possessed no less than
144 almshouses, besides giving 7,012 pensions; but of late
years their funds applicable to such purposes have been
curtailed. … It is significant that in Edward VI's reign the
name and style of Gild was abandoned by the brethren for the
title of 'the Corporation of the Trinity House of Deptford
Strond.' Gilds now had come into disrepute. The functions of
the Trinity House have long been recognised of such value to
the public service that their honourable origin, so consonant
with other English institutions is apt to be forgotten. … To
cherish the 'science and art of mariners,' and to provide a
supply of pilots, especially for the Thames up to London, were
their prime duties. The Admiralty and Navy boards were as
administrative bodies in 1520, and the ship-building yard at
Deptford, with the store-houses there, 'was placed under the
direct control of the gild.' The Sea Marks Act of 1566,
established which throws considerable light on the position of
the company at that time, endued them with the power of
preserving old and setting up new sea marks or beacons round
the coasts, among which trees came under their purview. How
far their jurisdiction extended is not stated; it would be
interesting to know whether their progress round the whole
shores of Britain were gradual or not. It is, perhaps, for its
work in connexion with light-houses, light-ships, buoys, and
beacons, that the Trinity House is best known to the general
public. … It was only in 1836 that parliament 'empowered the
corporation to purchase of the crown, or from private
proprietors, all lights then in existence,' which are
therefore at present under their efficient central control. …
The principal matters in their sphere of action—the important
provision of pilots, the encouragement and supply of seamen,
ballastage and ballast, lights and buoys, the suppression of
piracy and privateers, tonnage measurement, the victualling of
the navy, their intimate connexion with the gradual growth and
armament of the navy, the curious right to appoint certain
consuls abroad—all these receive illustration at first hand
from the author's careful researches among state papers and
the muniments of the corporation."
Lucy T. Smith,
Review of "The Trinity House of Deptford Strond";
by C. R. B. Barrett
(English Historical Review, April, 1894).
TRINOBANTES, The.
The Trinobantes were the first of the tribes of Britain to
submit to Cæsar. They inhabited the part of the country now
embraced in the county of Essex and part of Middlesex. Their
chief town, or stronghold ("oppidum") was Camulodunum, where
the Romans afterwards founded a colony which became the modern
city of Colchester. Cunobelin, the Cymbeline of Shakespeare,
was a king of the Trinobantes who acquired extensive power.
One of the sons of Cunobelin, Caractacus, became the most
obstinate enemy of the Romans when they seriously began the
conquest of Britain, in the reign of Claudius.
E. L. Cutts,
Colchester,
chapters 2-3.
ALSO IN:
C. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 51.
See also,
BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.
TRIOBOLON.
Three oboli,—the daily compensation paid in Athens to citizens
who served as judges in the great popular courts: afterwards
paid, likewise, to those who attended the assemblies of the
people.
A. Boeckh,
Public Economy of Athens,
book 2, chapter 15.
TRIPLE ALLIANCE, The.
There have been a number of Triple Alliances formed in
European history; see, for example.
NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668,
and SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725.
But the one in recent times to which allusion is often made is
that in which Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, are the
three parties. It was formed by treaty in February, 1882, and
renewed in 1887. Its purpose is mutual defense, especially, no
doubt, against the apprehended combination of Russia with
France.
----------TRIPOLI: Start--------
TRIPOLI, North Africa:
Origin of the name of.
See LEPTIS MAGNA.
{3125}
TRIPOLI, North Africa:
History.
See BARBARY STATES.
TRIPOLI, Syria:
Capture by the Crusaders.
Destruction of the Library.
Formation of the Latin county.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1104-1111;
and JERUSALEM: A. D. 1009-1144.
TRIPONTIUM.
A town in Roman Britain, where one of the great roads crossed
the Avon, near modern Lilburne.
T. Wright,
Celt, Roman and Saxon,
chapter 5.
TRISAGION, The.
See CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 511-512.
TRI-SKELION.
GAMMADION.
FYLFOT-CROSS.
SVASTIKA.
"One of the most remarkable instances of the migration of a
symbol is that afforded by the 'tri-skelion,' or, as we more
familiarly know it, 'the three legs of Man.' It first appears
on the coins of Lycia, circa B. C. 480; and then on those of
Sicily, where it was adopted by Agathocles, B. C. 317-307, but
not as a symbol of the morning, midday, and afternoon sun, but
of the land of Trinacria, i. e., 'Three Capes,' the ancient
name of Sicily; and finally on the coins of the Isle of Man,
on which it seems to refer rather to the position of that
island between England, Scotland, and Ireland, than to its
triangular shape. The tri-skelion of Lycia is made up of three
cocks' heads. … But on the coins of Sicily and of the Isle of
Man the tri-skelion consists of three human legs of an
identical pattern, excepting that those of the latter island
are spurred. This form of tri-skelion is borne on the arms of
several old English families, and it was in all probability
first introduced into this country [England] by some Crusader
returning from the East by way of Sicily. … The tri-skelion is
but a modification of the 'gammadion' or 'fyl-fot-cross,' the
'svastika' of the Hindus. The latter was long ago suspected by
Edward Thomas to be a sun-symbol; but this was not positively
proved until Mr. Percy Gardner found a coin of the ancient
city of Mesembria in Thrace stamped with a gammadion bearing
within its open centre an image of the sun—Mesembria meaning
the city of 'Mid-day,' and this name being figured on some of
its coins by the decisive legend MEΣ卍. … The gammadion
has travelled further afield than any other symbol of
antiquity. … Count Goblet d'Alviella traces it back at last to
the Troad as the cradle of its birth, some time anterior to
the 13th century B. C."
The Athenœum, August 13, 1802
(Reviewing Comte Goblet d'Alviella's
"La Migration des Symboles").
TRITTYES.
See PHYLÆ.
TRIUMPH AND OVATION, The Roman.
"The highest reward of the commander was the triumphal
entrance. At first it was awarded by senate and people to real
merit in the field, and its arrangement was simple and
dignified; but soon it became an opportunity of displaying the
results of insatiable Roman rapacity and love of conquest.
Only the dictators, consuls, prætors, and, in late republican
times, occasionally legates, were permitted by the senate to
enter Rome in triumph, the permission to the legate being
granted only in case he had commanded independently ('suis
auspiciis'), and conducted the army to Rome from a victorious
campaign 'in sua provincia.' As in later times it was
impossible to conduct the whole army from distant provinces to
Rome, the last-mentioned condition was dispensed with, the
claim of the commander to a triumph being acknowledged in case
in one of the battles gained by him 5,000 enemies had been
killed. The senate granted the expenses necessary for the
procession after the quæstor urbanus had examined and
confirmed the commander's claim. Streets and squares through
which the procession had to pass were festively adorned. The
temples were opened, and incense burnt on the altars.
Improvised stands were erected in the street, filled with
festive crowds shouting 'Io triumphe!' The commander, in the
meantime, collected his troops near the temples of Bellona and
Apollo, outside the gates of Rome. … The victor was met at the
'porta triumphalis' by the senate, the city magistrates, and
numerous citizens, who took the lead of the procession, while
lictors opened a way through the crowd. After the city
dignitaries followed tibicines, after them the booty. …
Fettered kings, princes, and nobles followed, doomed to
detention in the Mamertine prison. Next came sacrificial oxen
with gilt horns, accompanied by priests; and, finally,
preceded by singers, musicians, and jesters, the triumphal
chariot drawn by four horses. Clad in a toga picta and the
tunica palmata, temporarily taken from the statue of the
Capitoline Jupiter, the triumphator stood in his chariot
holding the eagle-crowned ivory sceptre in his hand, while a
servus publicus standing behind him held the corona
triumphalis over his head. The army brought up the rear of the
procession, which moved from the Campus Martius through the
circus of Flaminius to the Porta Carmentalis, and thence, by
way of the Velabrum and the Circus Maximus, the Via Sacra and
the Forum, to the Capitol. Here the triumphator deposited his
golden crown in the lap of the Capitoline Jupiter, and
sacrificed the usual suovetaurilia. … The ovatio was granted
for less important conquests, or to a general for victories
not won 'suis auspiciis.' The victor, adorned with the toga
prætexta and the myrtle crown, originally used to walk; in
later times he rode on horseback."
E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 100.
See, also, VIA SACRA.
TRIUMVIRATE,
The First.
See ROME: B. C. 63-58.
The Second.
See ROME: B. C. 44-42.
TROIS ÉVÊCHÉS, Les, and their acquisition by France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559, and 1670-1681;
and GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
TROISVILLE, Battle of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).
TROJA.
TROY.
TROAD.
ILIUM.
"In the whole long extent of this Western coast [of Asia
Minor] no region occupies a fairer situation than the northern
projection, the peninsula jutting out between Archipelago,
Hellespont, and Propontis, of which the mountain-range of Ida,
abounding in springs, forms the centre. Its woody heights were
the seat of the Phrygian Mother of the Gods; in its depths it
concealed treasures of ore, which the dæmons of mining, the
Dactyli of Ida, were here first said to have been taught by
Cybele to win and employ. A hardy race of men dwelt on the
mountains so rich in iron, divided into several tribes, the
Cebrenes, the Gergithians, and above all the beauteous
Dardani, among whom the story went, how their ancestor,
Dardanus, had, under the protection of the Pelasgian Zeus,
founded the city of Dardania.
{3126}
Some of these Dardani descended from the highlands into the
tracts by the coast, which has no harbours, but an island
lying in front of it called Tenedos. Here Phœnicians had
settled and established purple-fisheries in the sea of Sigeum;
at a later period Hellenic tribes arrived from Crete and
introduced the worship of Apollo. In the secure waters between
Tenedos and the mainland took place that contact which drew
the Idæan peninsula into the intercourse subsisting between
the coasts of the Archipelago. … In the midst of this
intercourse on the coast arose, out of the tribe of the
Dardani, which had deserted the hills, the branch of the
Trojans. … Thus, in the midst of the full life of the nations
of Asia Minor, on the soil of a peninsula (itself related to
either side) on which Phrygians and Pelasgians, Assyrians,
Phœnicians, and Hellenic mariners met, grows up the empire of
the Dardanides. The springs of the Ida range collect into
rivers, of which two flow to the Propontis, and one, the
Scamander, into the Ægean. The latter first flows through his
bed high in the mountains, through which he then breaks in a
narrow rocky gorge, and quitting the latter enters the flat
plain of his water-shed, surrounded on three sides by gentle
declivities, and open on the West to the sea. … In the
innermost corner of this plain projects a rocky height with
precipitous sides, as if it would bar the passage of the river
breaking forth from the ravine. Skirted in a wide curve by
Scamander on the East, it sinks to the West in gentle
declivities, where numerous veins of water spring from the
earth; these unite into two rivulets, distinguished by the
abundance and temperature of their water, which remain the
same at all seasons of the year. This pair of rivulets is the
immutable mark of nature, by which the height towering above
is recognized as the citadel of Ilium. They are the same
rivulets to which of old the Trojan women descended from the
Scæan gate to fetch water or to wash linen, and to this day
the same ancient walls close around the flowing water and
render it more easily available. The source of these rivulets
was the seat of power. On the gentler declivity lay Troja;
over which towered the steep citadel of Pergamus, the view
from whose turrets commanded the entire plain, … and beyond
the plain the broad sea itself. … No royal seat of the ancient
world could boast a grander site than this Trojan citadel."
E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 1, chapter 3.
The site contemplated by Dr. Curtius in the description quoted
above is some five miles higher up the valley of the Scamander
than Hissarlik, where Dr. Schliemann's excavations are
believed by many scholars to have now established the location
of ancient Troy.
H. Schliemann,
Ilios: the City and Country of the Trojans.
"Dr. Schliemann described in his 'Troja' and 'Ilios' seven
successive layers of city ruins found in his excavations at
Hissarlik. This number was increased in 1890 to nine by the
discovery of two layers intervening between the highest (or
Roman) layer, formerly called the seventh, and the sixth, or
so-called Lydian layer. These two lavers were, from the
character of the finds, attributed to the early and the later
Greek period. Dr. Schliemann was baffled by the fact that he
could discover no acropolis for the sixth, seventh, or eighth
layers. Dr. Dörpfeld, who in May [1893] resumed the
excavations at the expense of Dr. Schliemann's widow, makes in
the Mittheilungen of the German Archæological Society (xviii,
2), which appeared November 7, a significant report clearly
establishing the fact that the Romans, in building the great
temple of Ilian Athene, cut down the highest part of the
acropolis, and thus destroyed all traces of the acropolis
belonging to those layers. The excavations of 1890 had brought
to light two magnificent buildings in the sixth layer, besides
'Lydian' jars, much pottery, and one entire vase of the
Mykenæan or Homeric period. The evidence favored the
identification of this layer with the Homeric Troy or the
period of Mykenæ and Tiryns. On the other hand, the fact that
only two buildings find no city wall had been discovered for
this layer seemed to indicate that the Troy of Priam must be
referred to a lower level, namely, the second, where a
magnificent wall of prehistoric style had been discovered,
although its architecture and the character of the finds
suggested a more primitive culture than that painted in
Homeric song. The sixth layer has now in large part been
exposed by Dr. Dörpfeld and reveals the most imposing wall of
pre-Roman times. The remains of seven vast buildings have been
brought to light which have in part the ground plan of the
ancient Greek temples and of the halls of Tiryns and Mykenæ,
though surpassing those in proportions and in the carefulness
of their architecture. The remains of one admirable building
contained a hall 37 feet by 30. … Further, Dr. Dörpfeld
uncovered the fortifications of this city in many places, and
found them some sixteen feet in thickness with a still greater
height. On the outside the wall has a uniform slope. A
strong-tower fifty-eight feet in diameter contains an inner
staircase. In strength, proportions, and careful architecture
this tower will compare favorably with any tower of Greek
antiquity. The neat work of the corners and the nice dressing
of the stones might refer it to a period later than Homer, to
the historical Greek period, did we not know that in
historical times Troy was too insignificant to need the
erection of such walls. Moreover, the tower, built over in
Greek times, and partly damaged by the addition of an outer
stair, was finally in Roman times buried under massive
foundations. The correspondences in stone-work of the wall and
the houses place the tower and the buildings evidently in the
same layer. In the houses were found both local pottery and
also pottery of the Mykenæan style."
The Nation,
November 30, 1893.
"The latest news from the explorations at Hissarlik (Levant
Herald July 7) comes to us from the owner of the site, Mr.
Frank Calvert, United States consul, Dardanelles. It was
readily seen that the second, or burned city which Dr.
Schliemann enthusiastically assumed to be the city of Priam,
instead of solving the question of the 'Iliad,' offered new
problems to the archæologist. The precious objects and the
works of art there found were evidently ruder and more ancient
by some centuries than those of Mycenæ, and therefore
decidedly earlier than Homeric Troy. In the sixth city,
however, pottery of a Mycenæan type was discovered, and this
led Dr. Dörpfield, assisted by Mrs. Schliemann, and later by
the German Government, to extend excavations on this level,
with results that are now proving fruitful, and that may
possibly be conclusive. Curiously enough, Dr. Schliemann's
excavations obscured rather than aided this particular
investigation.
{3127}
The area of the sixth city was twice as great as the space
covered by the successive acropolises of the other five; and,
in consequence, their debris was dumped on the very spot which
Dr. Dörpfield has just been clearing. The massive walls he has
uncovered, from five to six metres broad, the lofty towers,
and the street which has been traced, may provisionally be
assumed to belong to the Homeric Troy."
The Nation,
August 9, 1894.
ALSO IN:
C. Schuchardt,
Schliemann's Excavations.
See, also,
ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES;
and HOMER.
TROPAION.
The trophy erected by a victorious army, among the Greeks, on
the spot from which the enemy had been driven. The trophy was
constructed in some manner out of the booty taken.
E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 54.
TROPPAU, Congress of.
See VERONA, CONGRESS OF.
TROUBADOURS.
TROUVÈRES.
JOGLARS.
JONGLEURS.
"The poets of the South of France during the Middle Age called
themselves 'Trobadors,' that is to say 'inventers' or
'finders'; and they adapted the 'langue d'oc,' also called the
Romansh of the South, or the Provençal, to the expression of
poetical sentiments. It is probable that poets of this
description existed as early as the formation of the idiom in
which they wrote. At any rate, we know that toward the year
1000 they already enjoyed considerable distinction, although
there is scarcely anything now left us from the earliest
period of their existence. … In regard to the time within
which the poetry of the Troubadours was in vogue, M. Fauriel
assumes only two periods. But it may perhaps be more
conveniently divided into three, as follows: The first
commences with its origin, as a popular poetry, and extends to
the time when it became an art and a profession, the poetry of
the nobles and the courts, that is to say, from about 1090 to
1140. The second is the period of its culmination, which
extends from the year 1140 to 1250. The third is the period of
its decadence, from 1250 to 1290."
G. J. Adler,
Introduction to Fauriel's
"History of Provençal Poetry."
"Sufficient has been said … to show the superiority of lyrical
over epic poetry in Provence. This inequality of the two
branches implied a commensurate difference of praise and
social esteem awarded to those who excelled in either of them,
and it is perhaps from this point of view that the two great
divisions of poets in the 'langue d'oc,' respectively
described as 'joglars' and 'trobadors,' or, in the French and
generally adopted form of the word, 'troubadours,' may be most
distinctly recognised. … It seems sufficiently established
that the verb 'trobar' and its derivative noun first and
foremost apply to lyrical poetry. To speak therefore of the
Troubadour as the singer of songs, of cansos and sirventeses
and albas and retroensas is a correct and tolerably
comprehensive definition."
F. Hueffer,
The Troubadours,
chapter 6.
"In the twelfth century, the Romance-Wallon [or the 'langue
d'oil' of northern France] became a literary language,
subsequent, by at least a hundred years, to the
Romance-provençal. … The reciters of tales, and the poets,
giving the name of Troubadour a French termination, called
themselves Trouvères. With the exception of the difference of
language, it may be thought that the Troubadour and the
Trouvère, whose merit was pretty nearly equal; who were
equally ignorant or well-informed: who both of them spent
their lives at courts, at which they composed their poems, and
where they mingled with knights and ladies; and who were both
accompanied by their jongleurs and minstrels, should have
preserved the same resemblance in their productions. Nothing,
however, can be more dissimilar than their poems. All that
remains of the poetry of the Troubadours is of a lyrical
character, while that of the Trouvères is decidedly epic. …
The Trouvères have left us many romances of chivalry, and
fabliaux."
J. C. L. S. de Sismondi,
Literature of the South of Europe,
chapter 7 (volume 1).
"We know nothing of the rise or origin of the two classes of
Trouveurs and Jongleurs. The former (which it is needless to
say is the same word as Troubadour, and Trobador, and
Trovatore) is the term for the composing class, the latter for
the performing one. But the separation was not sharp or
absolute."
G. Saintsbury,
Short History of French Literature,
book 1, chapter 1.
TROY.
See TROJA.
TROYES,
Treaty of (1420).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1417-1422.
Treaty of (1564).
See FRANCE: A. D, 1563-1564.
TRUCE, The Five Years.
See FIVE YEARS TRUCE.
TRUCE, The Sacred.
See OLYMPIC GAMES.
TRUCE, The Thirty Years.
See GREECE: B. C. 449-445.
TRUCE OF GOD, The.
"This extraordinary institution is the most speaking witness,
at once to the ferocity of the times [11th century], and also
to the deep counter feeling which underlay men's minds. Clergy
and laity alike felt that the state of things which they saw
daily before their eyes was a standing sin against God and
man, repugnant alike to natural humanity and to the precepts
of the Christian religion. States were everywhere so
subdivided, governments were everywhere so weak, that, in most
parts of Europe, every man who had the needful force at his
command simply did that which was right in his own eyes. …
Every man claimed the right of private war against every other
man who was not bound to him by some special tie as his lord
or his vassal. And the distinction between private war and
mere robbery and murder was not always very sharply drawn. … A
movement on behalf of peace and good will towards men could
not fail in those days to assume an ecclesiastical form. As of
old the Amphiktyonic Council, the great religious synod of
Greece, strove to put some bounds to the horrors of war as
waged between Greek and Greek, so now, in the same spirit, a
series of Christian synods strove, By means of ecclesiastical
decrees and ecclesiastical censures, to put some bounds to the
horrors of war as waged between Christian and Christian. … The
movement began in Aquitaine [A. D. 1034], and the vague and
rhetorical language of our authority would seem to imply that
all war, at any rate all private war, was forbidden under pain
of ecclesiastical censures. It must not be forgotten that, in
that age, it must have been exceedingly difficult to draw the
distinction between public and private war. …
{3128}
But the doctrine, hard as it might be to carry out in
practice, was rapturously received at its first announcement.
As the first preaching of the Crusade was met with one
universal cry of 'God wills it,' so the Bishops, Abbots, and
other preachers of the Truce were met with a like universal
cry of Peace, Peace, Peace. Men bound themselves to God and to
one an·other to abstain from all wrong and violence, and they
engaged solemnly to renew the obligation every five years.
From Aquitaine the movement spread through Burgundy Royal and
Ducal. But it seems to have been gradually found that the
establishment of perfect peace on earth was hopeless. After
seven years from the first preaching of peace, we find the
requirements of its apostles greatly relaxed. It was found
vain to forbid all war, even all private war. All that was now
attempted was to forbid violence of every kind from the
evening of Wednesday till the morning of Monday. It was in
this shape that the Truce was first preached in northern and
eastern Gaul. The days of Christ's supper, of His passion, of
His rest in the grave and His resurrection, were all to be
kept free from strife and bloodshed."
E. A. Freeman,
Norman Conquest,
chapter 8, section 2 (volume 2).
ALSO IN:
P. Schaff,
History of the Christian Church,
volume 4, chapter 6, section. 78.
TRUCELESS WAR, The.
See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.
TRUELLAS, Battle of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER)
PROGRESS OF THE WAR.
TRYON, Governor, The flight of.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1775 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER),
and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (AUGUST).
TSHEKHS, The.
See BOHEMIA: ITS PEOPLE &c.
TSING, OR CH'ING, Dynasty, The.
See CHINA: A. D. 1294-1882.
TUARIKS, The.
See LIBYANS.
TUATH.
"Among the people of Gaelic race [in Ireland and Scotland] the
original social unit appears to have been the 'Tuath,' a name
originally applied to the tribe, but which came to signify
also the territory occupied by the tribe community. … Several
of these Tuaths were grouped together to form a still larger
tribe, termed a Mortuath or great tribe, over whom one of the
kings presided as Ri Mortuath. … Then several of these
Mortuath formed a province, called in Irish 'Cuicidh,' or a
fifth. … Over each province was the Ri Cuicidh, or provincial
king, and then over the whole was the Ardri, or sovereign of
all Ireland. The succession to these several grades of Ri, or
king, was the same as that of the Ri Tuath, and was regulated
by the law of Tanistry, that is, hereditary in the family but
elective in the individual, the senior of the family being
usually preferred."
W. F. Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
volume 3, page 136-150.
TUATHA-DE-DANAAN.
One of the races named in Irish legend as original settlers of
Ireland, represented to have come from Greece and to have been
extraordinarily proficient in the arts of magic. They were
conquered, after two centuries, as the legend runs, by the
Milesians, or Scots.
T. Wright,
History of Ireland,
book 1, chapter 2 (volume 1).
See IRELAND: THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS.
TUBANTES, The.
See FRANKS: ORIGIN AND EARLIEST HISTORY.
TUCUMAN, The province of.
See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.
TUDELA, Battle of.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).
TUDORS, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1485-1603.
TUGENDBUND, The.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1808 (APRIL-DECEMBER).
TUILERIES, The.
The palace of the Tuileries is said to have taken its name
from the tile-making which had been carried on formerly in the
vicinity of the ground on which it was built. "The history of
it begins in the year 1564, when Catherine de Medicis
conceived the idea of having a palace to herself near the
Louvre, yet independent, in which she might be near enough to
her son Charles IX. to have influence over him. … The palace
was never very long or very closely connected with the history
of the monarchy. It is not at all comparable to Windsor in
that respect. Henry IV. liked it, Louis XIV. preferred
Versailles, Louis XV. lived at the Tuileries in his minority.
The chosen association of the palace with the sovereigns of
France is very recent. Louis XVI. lived in it, and so did
Charles X. and Louis-Philippe. The two Napoleons were fond of
it. … The last inhabitant was the Empress Eugénie, as Regent.
… The parliamentary history of the Tuileries is important, as
it has been not only a palace but a parliament house. … The
destruction of the Tuileries by the Communards [1871] was a
lamentable event from the point of view of the historian and
the archaeologist, but artistically the loss is not great."
P. G. Hamerton,
Paris in Old and Present Times,
chapter 5.
ALSO IN:
History of Paris
(London: 1827), volume 2, chapter 2.
TUILERIES: A. D. 1792.
Mobbing of the King.
The attack of August 10.
Massacre of the Swiss.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (JUNE-AUGUST).
TUKUARIKAS.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.
TULCHAN BISHOPS.
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1572.
TULLAHOMA CAMPAIGN, The.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (JUNE-JULY: TENNESSEE).
TULLIANUM, The.
See MAMERTINE PRISON.
TUMULT OF AMBOISE.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561.
TUMULUS.
A mound; usually a grave mound, or barrow.
TUN.
TUNSCIPE.
See TOWN; TOWNSHIP;
and BOROUGH.
TUNIC, The Roman.
"The tunica was put on in the same way as the Greek chiton.
Its cut was the same for men and women, and its simple
original type was never essentially modified by the additions
of later fashion. It was light and comfortable, and was worn
especially at home; out of doors the toga was arranged over
it."
E. Guhl and W. Koner,
Life of the Greeks and Romans,
section 95.
TUNIS, Ancient.
See CARTHAGE, THE DOMINION OF;
also, AFRICA, THE ROMAN PROVINCE.
TUNIS: A. D. 1270-1271.
Crusade of Saint Louis.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1270-1271.
TUNIS: Modern history.
See BARBARY STATES.