CHAPTER V
THE CONQUEST OF THE LAND
The Amphibia are the oldest and the lowest group of vertebrates that are able to lead an active existence on land, and the characters which distinguish them most definitely from the fishes are all to be interpreted as adaptions to the new mode of life. One of the most obvious external differences between the two groups is in the structure of the extremities, the fish having fins, while the amphibian has limbs constructed on the same general lines as our own arms and legs. The fish's fin is to be regarded as an extremity with a very great number of fingers or toes. It has the function of a paddle, and is obviously useless whether for supporting or propelling the body on land. The first obvious necessity for a land existence is some mechanism by which the limb can be alternately pushed forward and, being fixed to some solid object, drawn upon, so as to pull the body after it. A different arrangement of bones and muscles, so as to give a much more complex lever system than that of a fin, and some kind of clawing arrangement at the end, were thus necessary. The similarity in the limbs of all the land vertebrates is very striking, as is indicated by the comparison of human and a frog's limbs on Fig. 84. In each case there is a single bone in the upper arm or thigh, which is attached to a bony girdle in the trunk. There are two elements in the forearm and in the lower leg respectively, below which, in either case, is a group of small bones constituting a complex joint at the wrist or ankle. Then follows the set of five bones in the foot or hand, to each of which is attached a jointed finger or toe. We have no reason to believe that this particular arrangement, and the particular number of digits, was arrived at except by accident. Once arrived at, however, the arrangement was adhered to with considerable strictness. For although the number of digits is in some groups—in the birds especially—reduced, the primary design is almost always readily recognisable. The second function of the limb, that of supporting the body, was developed very slowly. In the amphibians and reptiles, and even in the lower mammals, the legs are comparatively weak and sprawling, and the creature crawls on the belly.
Left hind leg of frog.
Left leg of man.
Left arm of man.
Left arm of frog.
Fig. 84.