Fig. 87.
A careful study of figs. [84], 85, 86, and 87, pp. 160, 161, and 163, shows the great importance of the twisted configuration and curves peculiar to the natural wing. If the wing was not curved in every direction it could not be rolled on and off the wind during the down and up strokes, as seen more particularly at fig. 87, p. 163. This, however, is a vital point in progressive flight. The wing (b) is rolled on to the wind in the direction b a, its under concave or biting surface being crushed hard down with the effect of elevating the body to e. The body falls to g, and the wing (f) is rolled off the wind in the direction f j, and elevated until it assumes the position j. The elevation of the wing is effected partly by the fall of the body, partly by the action of the elevator muscles and elastic ligaments, and partly by the reaction of the air, operating on its under or concave biting surface. The wing is therefore to a certain extent resting during the up stroke.
The concavo-convex form of the wing is admirably adapted for the purposes of flight. In fact, the power which the wing possesses of always keeping its concave or under surface directed downwards and forwards enables it to seize the air at every stage of both the up and down strokes so as to supply a persistent buoyancy. The action of the natural wing is accompanied by remarkably little slip—the elasticity of the organ, the resiliency of the air, and the shortening and elongating of the elastic ligaments and muscles all co-operating and reciprocating in such a manner that the descent of the wing elevates the body; the descent of the body, aided by the reaction of the air and the shortening of the elastic ligaments and muscles, elevating the wing. The wing during the up stroke arches above the body after the manner of a parachute, and prevents the body from falling. The sympathy which exists between the parts of a flying animal and the air on which it depends for support and progress is consequently of the most intimate character.
The up stroke (B, D of figs. [84] and 85, p. 160), as will be seen from the foregoing account, is a compound movement due in some measure to recoil or resistance on the part of the air; to the shortening of the muscles, elastic ligaments, and other vital structures; to the elasticity of the wing; and to the falling of the body in a downward and forward direction. The wing may be regarded as rotating during the down stroke upon 1 of figs. [84] and 85, p. 160, which may be taken to represent the long and short axes of the wing; and during the up stroke upon 2, which may be taken to represent the yielding fulcrum furnished by the air. A second pulsation is indicated by the numbers 3 and 4 of the same figures (84, 85).
The Wing acts upon yielding Fulcra.—The chief peculiarity of the wing, as has been stated, consists in its being a twisted flexible lever specially constructed to act upon yielding fulcra (the air). The points of contact of the wing with the air are represented at a b c d e f g h i j k l respectively of figs. [84] and 85, p. 160; and the imaginary points of rotation of the wing upon its long and short axes at 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the same figures. The assumed points of rotation advance from 1 to 3 and from 2 to 4 (vide arrows marked r and s, fig. [85]); these constituting the steps or pulsations of the wing. The actual points of rotation correspond to the little loops a b c d f g h i j l of fig. [85]. The wing descends at A and C, and ascends at B and D.
The Wing acts as a true Kite both during the Down and Up Strokes.—If, as I have endeavoured to explain, the wing, even when elevated and depressed in a strictly vertical direction, inevitably and invariably darts forward, it follows as a that the wing, as already partly explained, flies forward as a true kite, both during the down and up strokes, as shown at c d e f g h i j k l m of fig. 88; and that its under concave or biting surface, in virtue of the forward travel communicated to it by the body in motion, is closely applied to the air, both during its ascent and descent—a fact hitherto overlooked, but one of considerable importance, as showing how the wing furnishes a persistent buoyancy, alike when it rises and falls.
