Climate and Time in Their Geological Relations / A Theory of Secular Changes of the Earth's Climate

by James Croll

Ocean-currents: On the Physical Cause of Ocean-currents. Examination of Dr. Carpenter’s Theory.—Phil. Mag., October, 1871.

Ocean-currents: Further Examination of the Gravitation Theory.—Phil. Mag., February, 1874.

Ocean-currents: The Wind Theory of Oceanic Circulation.—Phil. Mag., March, 1874.

Ocean-currents.—Nature, May 21st, 1874.

The Physical Cause of Ocean-currents.—Phil. Mag., June, 1874. American Journal of Science and Art, September, 1874.

On the Physical Cause of the Submergence and Emergence of the Land during the Glacial Epoch.—Geol. Mag., July and August, 1874.

INDEX.

• Absolute heating-power of ocean-currents, [23]
• 〃 amount of heat received from the sun per day, [26]
• Adhémar, M., theory founded upon a mistake in regard to radiation, [81], [85]
• 〃 on submergence, [368]
• 〃 on influence of eccentricity on climate, [542]
• Aërial currents increased in action by formation of snow and ice, [76]
• 〃 function of, stated, [51]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, [27]
• Africa, South, glacial and inter-glacial periods of, [242]
• 〃 boulder clay of Permian age, [300]
• Age and origin of the sun, [346]
• Air, on absorption of rays by, [59]
• 〃 when humid, absorbs rays which agree with it in period, [59]
• 〃 when perfectly dry incapable of absorbing radiant heat, [59]
• Airy, Professor, earth’s axis of rotation permanent, [7]
• Aitken’s, Mr., experiment on density of polar water, [129]
• Aland islands, striation of, [447]
• Alternate cold and warm periods, [236]
• Allermuir, striations on summit of, [441]
• America, low temperature in January, [72]
• 〃 thickness of ice-sheet of North, [381]
• Anderson, Captain Sir James, never observed a stone on an iceberg, [282]
• Antarctic ice-cap, probable thickness of, [375]
• 〃 diagram representing thickness of, [377]
• 〃 thickness of, estimated from icebergs, [384]
• Antarctic regions, mean summer temperature of, below freezing-point, [63]
• Antarctic snowfall, estimates of, [382]
• Aphelion, glacial conditions at maximum when winter solstice is at, [77]
• Arago, M., on influence of eccentricity on climate, [536]
• Arctic climate, influence of ocean-currents on, during glacial period, [260]
• Arctic regions, influence of Gulf-stream on climate of, [45]
• 〃 mean summer temperature of, [63]
• Arctic regions, amount of heat received by, per unit surface, [195]
• 〃 warm periods best marked in, [258]
• 〃 warm inter-glacial periods in, [258−265]
• 〃 state of, during glacial period, [260]
• 〃 evidence of warm periods in, [261]
• 〃 occurrence of recent trees in, [261], [265]
• 〃 evidence of warm inter-glacial periods, [293]
• 〃 warm climate during Old Red Sandstone period in, [295]
• 〃 glacial period during Carboniferous age in, [297]
• 〃 warm climate during Permian period in, [301]
• 〃 list of papers relating to, [556]
• Arctic Ocean, area of, [195]
• 〃 according to gravitation theory ought to be warmer than Atlantic in torrid zone, [195]
• 〃 heat conveyed into, by currents, compared with that received by it from the sun, [195]
• 〃 blocked up with polar ice, [444]
• Armagh, boulder beds of, [299]
• Arran, Island of, glacial conglomerate of Permian age in, [299]
• Astronomical causes of change of climate, [10]
• Astronomy and geology, supposed analogy between, [355]
• Atlantic, atmospheric pressure on middle of, [33]
• 〃 inability of, to heat the south-west winds without the Gulf-stream, [34]
• 〃 mean annual temperature of, [36]
• 〃 mean temperature of, raised by Gulf-stream, [36], [40]
• 〃 isothermal lines of, compared with those of the Pacific, [46]
• 〃 area of, from equator to Tropic of Cancer, [194]
• 〃 inquiry whether the area of, is sufficient to supply heat according to Dr. Carpenter’s theory, [194]
• Atlantic, North, heat received by, from torrid zone by currents, [194]
• 〃 according to Dr. Carpenter’s theory ought to be warmer in temperate regions than in the torrid zone, [195]
• 〃 great depth of warm water in, [198]
• 〃 North, an immense whirlpool, [216]
• 〃 above the level of equator, [221]
• 〃 probable antiquity of, [367]
• 〃 from Scandinavia to Greenland probably filled with ice, [451]
• Atmosphere-pressure in Atlantic a cause of south-west winds, [33]
• Atmosphere, on difference between black-bulbed and shaded thermometer in upper strata of, [547]
• Australia, evidence of ice-action in conglomerate of, [295]
• Ayrshire, ice-action during Silurian period in, [293]
• Bakewell, Mr. R., on influence of eccentricity on climate, [540]
• Banks’s Land, discovery of ancient forest in, [261]
• 〃 Professor Heer, on fossilized wood of, [309]
• Ball, Mr., objection to Canon Moseley’s results, [501]
• Baltic current, [171]
• Baltic, glaciation of islands in, [448]
• Baltic glacier, passage of, over Denmark, [449]
• Bath, grooved rock surfaces of, [464]
• Bay-ice grinds but does not striate rocks, [277]
• Belcher, Sir E., tree dug up by, in latitude 75° N., [263]
• 〃 carboniferous fossils found in arctic regions by, [298]
• Belle-Isle, Strait of, observations on action of icebergs in, [276]
• Bell, Mr. A., on Mediterranean forms in glacial bed at Greenock, [254]
• Belt, Mr. Thomas, theory of the cause of glacial epochs, [415]
• Bennie, Mr. James, on surface geology, [468]
• 〃 on deposits filling buried channel, [486]
• Blanford, Mr., on ice-action during Carboniferous age in India, [297]
• Borings, evidence of inter-glacial beds from, [254]
• 〃 examination of drift by, [467]
• 〃 journals of, [483], [484]
• Boulder clays of former glacial epochs, why so rare, [269]
• 〃 a product of land-ice, [284]
• 〃 if formed from icebergs must be stratified, [284]
• 〃 scarcity of fossils in, [285]
• 〃 formed chiefly from rock on which it lies, [285]
• 〃 of Caithness a product of land-ice, [435]
• 〃 on summit of Allermuir, [441]
• Boulders, how carried from a lower to a higher level, [527]
• Boussingault on absorption of carbon by vegetation, [428]
• Britain, climate of, affected most by south-eastern portion of Gulf-stream, [33]
• Brown, Dr. R., cited on Greenland ice-sheet, [378], [380]
• 〃 on inland ice of Greenland, [284]
• 〃 on cretaceous formation of Greenland, [305]
• 〃 on Miocene beds of the Disco district, [310]
• Brown, Mr. Robert, on growth of coal plants, [421]
• Brown and Dickeson, on sediment of Mississippi, [330]
• Buchan, Mr., on atmosphere-pressure in the Atlantic, [33]
• 〃 on force of the wind, [220]
• Buchanan, Mr. J. Y., on vertical distribution of heat of the ocean, [550]
• Buckland, Dr., observations by, on occurrence of red chalk on Cotteswold hills, [459]
• Buff, Professor, on oceanic circulation, [145]
• Buried river channels, [466]
• 〃 channel from Kilsyth to Grangemouth, [468]
• 〃 section at Grangemouth, [474]
• 〃 from Kilsyth to Clyde, [481]
• 〃 not excavated by sea nor by ice, [469]
• 〃 other examples of, [488−494]
• Caithness, difficulty of accounting for the origin of the boulder clay of, [435]
• Caithness, boulder clay of, a product of land-ice, [435]
• 〃 boulder clay not formed by icebergs, [437]
• 〃 theories regarding the origin of the boulder clay of, [437]
• 〃 why the ice was forced over it, [444]
• 〃 Professor Geikie and B. N. Peach on path of ice over, [453]
• Cambrian conglomerate of Islay, [292]
• Campbell, Mr., observations of, on icebergs, [276]
• 〃 on supposed striation of rocks by large icebergs, [278]
• 〃 evidence that river-ice does not striate rocks, [279]
• Canada, change of climate less complete than in Scotland, [71]
• Carboniferous period of arctic regions, [298]
• 〃 evidence of glacial epoch during, [296−298]
• 〃 temperate climate of, [422]
• Carboniferous limestone, mode of formation, [433]
• Carpenter’s, Dr., objections examined, [141]
• 〃 theory, mechanics of, [145]
• 〃 idea of a 〃vertical circulation〃 stated, [153]
• Carpenter’s, Dr., radical error in theory of, [155]
• 〃 on difference of density between waters of Atlantic and Mediterranean, [168]
• 〃 theory, inadequacy of, [191]
• 〃 estimate of thermal work of Gulf-stream, [199]
• Charpentier’s, M., theory of glacier-motion, [513]
• Carse clays, date of, [405]
• Cattegat, ice-markings on shore of, [446]
• Cave and river deposits, [251]
• Chalk, erratic blocks found in, [304]
• 〃 débris, conclusion of Mr. Searles Wood, [460]
• Challenger’s temperature-soundings at equator, [119]
• 〃 crucial test of the wind and gravitation theories, [220]
• Chambers, Dr. Robert, on striated pavements, [255]
• 〃 observations on glaciation of Gothland, [446]
• Champlain Lake, inter-glacial bed of, [241]
• Chapelhall, ancient buried channel at, [491]
• 〃 inter-glacial sand-bed, [244]
• Chart showing the agreement between system of currents and system of winds, [212]
• Christianstadt, crossed by Baltic glacier, [450]
• Circulation without difference of level, [176]
• Climate, Secular changes of, intensified by reaction of physical causes, [75], [76]
• 〃 affected most by temperature of the surface of ground, [88]
• 〃 ocean-currents in relation to, [226]
• 〃 cold conditions of, inferred from absence of fossils, [288]
• 〃 cold condition of, difficulty of determining, from fossil remains, [289]
• 〃 warm, of arctic regions during Old Red Sandstone period, [295]
• 〃 rough sketch of the history of, during the last [60],000 years, [409]
• 〃 of Coal period inter-glacial in character, [420]
• 〃 alternate changes of, during Coal period, [426]
• Climates, Mr. J. Geikie on difficulty of detecting evidence of ancient glacial conditions, [289]
• 〃 evidence of, from ancient sea-bottoms, [289]
• Coal an inter-glacial formation, [420]
• Coal beds, alternate submergence and emergence during formation of, [424]
• 〃 preservation of, by submergence, [426]
• Coal period, flatness of the land during, [430]
• Coal plants, conditions necessary for, preservation of, [423]
• Coal seams, thickness of, indicative of length of inter-glacial periods, [428]
• Coal seams, time occupied in formation of, [429]
• Coal strata, on absence of ice-action in, [429]
• Coal measures, oscillations of sea-level during formation of, [425]
• Cold periods best marked in temperate regions, [258]
• Colding, Dr., oceanic circulation, [95]
• Confusion of ideas in reference to the agency of polar cold, [179]
• Continental ice, inadequate conceptions of, [385]
• 〃 absence of, during glacial epochs of Coal period, [432]
• Contorted drift near Musselburgh, [465]
• Cook, Captain, description of Sandwich Land by, [60]
• 〃 on South Georgia, [60]
• Cornwall, striated rocks of, [464]
• Cotteswold hills, red chalk from Yorkshire found on, [459]
• Couthony, Mr., on action of icebergs, [275]
• Coutts, Mr. J., on buried channel, [493]
• Craig, Mr. Robert, on inter-glacial beds at Overton Hillhead and Crofthead, [247]
• Craiglockhart hill, inter-glacial bed of, [245]
• “Crawling” theory considered, [507]
• “Crevasses,” origin of, according to molecular theory, [521]
• Cretaceous period, evidence of ice-action during, [303−305]
• Cretaceous age, evidence of warm periods during, [304]
• Cretaceous formation of Greenland, [305]
• Crofthead, inter-glacial bed at, [248]
• Cromer forest bed, [250]
• Crosskey, Rev. Mr., comparison of Clyde and Canada shell beds, [71]
• 〃 on southern shells in Clyde beds, [253]
• Croydon, block of granite found in chalk at, [303]
• Crucial test of the wind and gravitation theories, [220]
• Crystallization, force of, a cause of glacier-motion, [523]
• Currents, effects of their stoppage on temperatures of equator and poles, [42]
• 〃 produced by saltness neutralize those produced by temperature, [106]
• Dalager, excursion in Greenland by, [378]
• Dana, Professor, on action of icebergs, [275]
• 〃 on striations by icebergs, [275]
• 〃 on thickness of ice-sheet of North America, [381]
• Darwin, Mr., on alternate cold and warm periods, [231]
• 〃 on migration of plants and animals during glacial epoch, [395]
• 〃 on peat of Falkland Islands, [422]
• Date of the 40-foot beach, [409]
• Date when conditions were favourable to formations of the Carse clay, [409]
• Davis’ Straits, current of, [132]
• Dawkins, Mr. Boyd, on the animals of cave and river deposits, [251]
• Dawson, Principal, on esker of Carboniferous age, [296]
• 〃 on habitats of coal plants, [424]
• Deflection of ocean-currents chief cause of change of climate, [68]
• De la Beche, Sir H. T., on influence of eccentricity on climate, [539]
• De Mairan, on influence of eccentricity on climate, [528]
• Denmark, crossed by Baltic glacier, [449−452]
• Denudation, method of measuring rate of, [329]
• 〃 as a measure of geological time, [329]
• 〃 measured by sediment of Mississippi, [330]
• 〃 subaërial rate of, [331]
• 〃 law which determines rate of, [333]
• 〃 marine, trifling, [337]
• Deposition, rates of, generally adopted, quite arbitrary, [360]
• 〃 rate of, determined by rate of denudation, [362]
• 〃 range of, restricted to a narrow fringe surrounding the continents, [364]
• 〃 area of, [365]
• 〃 during glacial epoch probably less than present, [366]
• Deposits from icebergs cannot be wholly unstratified, [437]
• Despretz, tables by, of temperature of maximum density of sea-water, [117]
• Desor, M., on tropical fauna of the Eocene formation in Switzerland, [306]
• Derbyshire, breaks in limestone of, marks of cold periods, [434]
• Derbyshire limestone a product of inter-glacial periods, [434]
• Devonshire, boulder clay discovered in, [463]
• Diagram illustrating descent of water from equator to poles, [155]
• 〃 showing variations of eccentricity, [313]
• 〃 illustrative of fluidity of interior of the earth, [396]
• 〃 showing formation of coal beds, [426]
• Dick, Mr., chalk flints in boulder clay, [454]
• Dick, Mr. R., on buried channel, [491]
• Difference of level essential to gravitation theory, [176]
• Dilatation of sea-water by increase of temperature calculated by Sir John Herschel, [116]
• Disco district, Dr. R. Brown cited on Miocene beds of, [310]
• Disco Island, Upper Miocene period of, [307−308]
• Distribution, how effected by ocean-currents, [231]
• Dove, Professor, method of constructing normal temperature tables by, [40]
• 〃 on mean annual temperature, [401]
• Dover, mass of coal imbedded in chalk found at, [303]
• Drayson, Lieutenant-Colonel, on obliquity of ecliptic, [410]
• Drayson, Lieutenant-Colonel, theory of the cause of the glacial epoch, [410]
• Drift, examination by borings, [467]
• Drumry, deep surface deposits at, [482]
• Dubuat’s, M., experiments, [182]
• 〃 experiments by, on water flowing down an incline, [120]
• Duncan, Captain, on under current in Davis’ Strait, [134]
• Dürnten lignite beds, [240]
• Dürnten beds an example of inter-glacial coal formation, [433]
• Durham, buried river channel at, [488]
• Earth’s axis of rotation permanent, [7]
• Earth, mean temperature of, increased by water at equator, [30]
• 〃 not habitable without ocean-currents, [54]
• 〃 mean temperature of, greatest in aphelion, [77], [78]
• 〃 centre of gravity of, effects of ice-cap on, [370], [371]
• Eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, Mr. Stockwell’s researches regarding, [54]
• 〃 primary cause of change of climate, [54]
• 〃 primary cause of glacial epochs, [77]
• 〃 how it affects the winds, [228]
• 〃 tables of, [314−321]
• 〃 its influence on temperature, [323]
• 〃 explanation of tables of, [324]
• 〃 De Marian, on influence of, on climate, [528]
• 〃 Sir J. F. Herschel, on influence of, on climate, [529]
• 〃 Œpinus, on influence of, on climate, [529]
• 〃 R. Kirwan, on influence of, on climate, [529]
• 〃 of planetary orbits, superior limits as determined by Lagrange, Leverrier, and Mr. Stockwell, [531]
• 〃 Sir Charles Lyell, on influence of, on climate, [529], [535]
• 〃 M. Arago, on influence of, on climate, [536]
• 〃 Baron Humboldt, on influence of, on climate, [538]
• 〃 Sir H. T. de la Beche, on influence of, on climate, [539]
• 〃 Professor Phillips, on influence of, on climate, [539]
• 〃 Mrs. Somerville, on influence of, on climate, [540]
• 〃 L. W. Meech, on influence of, on climate, [540]
• 〃 Mr. R. Bakewell, on influence of, on climate, [540]
• 〃 M. Jean Reynaud, on influence of, on climate, [541]
• 〃 M. Adhémar, on influence of, on climate, [542]
• Equator, reduction of level by denudation, [336]
• Ecliptic, supposed effect of a change of obliquity of, [8]
• 〃 changes of, effects on climate, [398−417]
• 〃 obliquity of, Lieutenant-Colonel Drayson on, [410]
• Emergence, physical cause of, [368]
• England, inter-glacial beds of, [249]
• 〃 glacial origin of Old Red Sandstone of, [294]
• 〃 ice-action during Permian period in, [298]
• 〃 North of, ice-sheet of, [456]
• 〃 ice-sheet of South of, [463]
• Eocene period, total absence of fossils in flysch, [286]
• 〃 glacial epoch of, [305]
• Eocene and Miocene periods, date of, [357]
• Equator, heat received per square mile at, [26]
• 〃 temperature of earth increased by water at, [30]
• 〃 and poles, effects of stoppage of currents on temperature of, [42]
• 〃 surface-currents warmer than the under currents, [92]
• 〃 heat transferred by currents from southern hemisphere compared with that received by land at, [93]
• 〃 temperature soundings at, [119]
• 〃 temperature of sea at, decreases most rapidly at the surface, [119]
• 〃 heat received by the three zones compared with that received by the, [194]
• 〃 migration across, [234]
• 〃 glaciation of, [234]
• Equatorial current, displacement of, [229]
• Erratic blocks in stratified rocks, evidence of former land-ice, [269]
• 〃 in chalk, [304]
• 〃 why not found in coal strata, [432]
• Erratics extend further south in America than in Europe, [72]
• Etheridge, R., jun., on glacial conglomerate in Australia of Old Red Sandstone age, [295]
• Europe, influence of Gulf-stream on climate of, [31]
• 〃 effect of deflection of Gulf-stream on condition of, [68]
• 〃 glacial condition of, if Gulf-stream was stopped, [71]
• 〃 river systems of, unaltered since glacial period, [393]
• Faraday, Professor, on cause of regelation, [554]
• Faroe Islands glaciated by land-ice from Scandinavia, [450]
• Ferrel, Mr., on Dr. Carpenter’s theory, [126]
• 〃 argument from the tides, [184]
• Findlay, Mr. A. G., objection by, considered, [31], [203]
• 〃 estimate of heat conveyed by Gulf-stream, [206]
• Fisher, Rev. O., on the 〃trail〃 of Norwich, [251]
• 〃 on glacial submergence, [387]
• Fitzroy, Admiral, on temperature of Atlantic, [36]
• Fluid molecules crystallize in interstices, [523]
• Fluvio-marine beds of Norwich, [250]
• “Flysch” of Eocene period, absence of fossils in, [286]
• 〃 of Switzerland of glacial origin, [306]
• Fogs prevent the sun’s heat from melting ice and snow in arctic regions, [60]
• Forbes, Professor J. D., method adopted by, of ascertaining temperatures, [48]
• 〃 on temperature of equator and poles, [48]
• 〃 on the conductivity of different kinds of rock, [86]
• 〃 on underground temperature, [86]
• 〃 experiments by, on the power of different rocks to store up heat, [86]
• Forest bed of Cromer, [250]
• Former glacial periods, [266−310]
• 〃 why so little known of, [266]
• 〃 geological evidence of, [292]
• France, evidence of ice-action during Carboniferous period in, [296]
• Fraserburgh, glaciation of, [450]
• 〃 crossed by North Sea ice, [454]
• Fundamental problem of geology, [1]
• Ganges, amount of sediment conveyed by, [331]
• Gases, radiation of, [38]
• Gastaldi, M., on the Miocene glacial epoch of Italy, [306]
• Geikie, Professor, on geological agencies, [1]
• 〃 on inter-glacial beds of Scotland, [243]
• 〃 remarks on inter-glacial beds, [245]
• 〃 on striated pavements, [256]
• 〃 on ice-markings on Scandinavian coast, [281]
• 〃 striated stones found in carboniferous conglomerate by, [296]
• 〃 on sediment of European rivers, [332]
• 〃 on modern denudation, [332]
• 〃 suggestion regarding the loess, [452]
• 〃 on striation of Caithness, [453]
• 〃 on buried channel at Chapelhall, [491]
• 〃 and Mr. James, on glacial conglomerate of Lower Carboniferous age, [296]
• Geikie, Mr. James, on Crofthead inter-glacial bed, [248]
• 〃 on the gravels of Switzerland, [268]
• 〃 on difficulty of recognising former glacial periods, [289]
• 〃 on Cambrian conglomerate of north-west of Scotland, [293]
• 〃 on ice-action in Ayrshire during Silurian period, [293]
• 〃 on boulder conglomerate of Sutherland, [301]
• 〃 on buried channels, [492]
• Geogr. Mittheilungen, list of papers in, relating to arctic regions, [556]
• Geological agencies climatic, [2]
• Geological principle, nature of, [4]
• Geological climates, theories of, [6]
• Geological time, [311−359]
• 〃 measurable from astronomical data, [311]
• 〃 why it has been over-estimated, [325]
• 〃 method of measuring, [328], [329]
• 〃 Professor Ramsay on, [343]
• Geology, fundamental problem of, [1]
• 〃 a dynamical science, [5]
• 〃 and astronomy, supposed analogy between, [355]
• German Polar Expedition on density of polar water, [151]
• 〃 list of papers relating to, [556]
• German Ocean once dry land, [479]
• Germany, Professor Ramsay on Permian breccia of, [300]
• Gibraltar current, Dr. Carpenter’s theory of, [167]
• 〃 cause of, [215]
• Glacial conditions increased by reaction of various physical causes, [75]
• 〃 reach maximum when winter solstice arrives at aphelion, [77]
• Glacial epoch, date of, [327]
• 〃 circumstances which show recent date of, [341]
• 〃 Mr. Belt’s theory of cause of, [415]
• Glacial epochs dependent upon deflection of ocean-currents, [68]
• 〃 caused primarily by eccentricity, [77]
• 〃 why so little known of, formerly, [266]
• 〃 boulder clays of former, why so rare, [269]
• 〃 geological evidence of former, [292]
• Glacial period in America more severe than in Western Europe, [73]
• 〃 mean temperature of the earth greatest at aphelion during, [78]
• 〃 records of, fast disappearing, [270]
• 〃 of the Eocene formation, [305]
• Glacial periods, indirect evidence of, in Eocene and Miocene formations, [287]
• 〃 difficulty of determining, from fossil remains, [289]
• Glacial submergence resulting from displacement of the earth’s centre of gravity, [389]
• Glaciation a cause of submergence, [390]
• 〃 remains of, found chiefly on land surfaces, [267]
• 〃 of Scandinavia inexplicable by theory of local glaciers, [448]
• Glacier des Bois, [497]
• Glacier-motion, Canon Moseley’s theory of, [507]
• 〃 Professor James Thomson’s theory of, [512]
• 〃 M. Charpentier’s theory of, [513]
• 〃 molecular, [516]
• Glacier-motion, present state of the question, [514]
• 〃 molecular theory of, [514−527]
• 〃 heat necessary to, [515]
• 〃 due to force of crystallization, [523]
• 〃 due chiefly to internal molecular pressure, [523]
• Glaciers, pressure exerted by, [274]
• 〃 physical cause of the motion of, [495−527]
• 〃 difficulties in accounting for motion of, [495]
• Glasgow, actual January temperature of, 28° above normal, [72]
• Godwin-Austen, Mr., on ice-action during the Carboniferous period in France, [296]
• 〃 on evidence of ice-action during Cretaceous period, [303]
• 〃 on mass of coal found in chalk at Dover, [304]
• 〃 on the flatness of the land during Coal period, [430]
• Gothland, glaciation of, [446]
• Grangemouth, buried river channel at, [468]
• 〃 surface-drift of, [484]
• Gravitation, the whole work of, performed by descent of water down the slope, [154]
• 〃 of sun’s mass, [348]
• 〃 insufficient to account for sun’s heat, [349], [350]
• Gravitation theory, its relation to the theory of Secular changes of climate, [97]
• 〃 three modes of determining it, [115]
• 〃 mechanics of, [145]
• 〃 of the Gibraltar current, [167]
• 〃 inadequacy of, [191]
• 〃 crucial test of, [220]
• 〃 of the sun’s heat, [346−355]
• Gravity, force of, impelling water from equator to poles, [119], [120]
• 〃 force of, insensible at a short distance below the surface, [120]
• 〃 work performed by, [150]
• 〃 diagram illustrating the action of, in producing currents, [155]
• 〃 amount of work performed by, due solely to difference of temperature between equatorial and polar waters, [164]
• 〃 specific difference in, between water of Atlantic and Mediterranean insufficient to produce currents, [169]
• 〃 centre of, displacement, by polar ice-cap, [368]
• Greenland, summer warm if free from ice, [59]
• 〃 receives as much heat in summer as England, [66]
• 〃 continental ice free from clay or mud, [284]
• 〃 North, warm climate during Oolitic period in, [302]
• 〃 Cretaceous formation of, [305]
• Greenland, evidence of warm conditions during Miocene period in, [307]
• 〃 Professor Heer cited on Miocene flora of, [308], [309]
• 〃 state of, during glacial period, [259]
• 〃 effect of removal of ice from, [260]
• Greenland ice-sheet, probable thickness of, [378]
• 〃 invaded the American continent, [445]
• Greenland inland ice, [379]
• Gulf-stream, estimate of its volume, [24]
• 〃 United States’ coast survey of, [24]
• 〃 absolute amount of heat conveyed by, [25], [26]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, compared with that carried by aërial currents, [27]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, compared with that received by the frigid zone from the sun, [27]
• 〃 influence on climate of Europe, [31]
• 〃 efficiency of, due to the slowness of its motion, [32]
• 〃 climate of Britain influenced by south-eastern portion of, [33]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, compared with that derived by temperate regions from the sun, [34]
• 〃 heat of, expressed in foot-pounds of energy, [35]
• 〃 mean temperature of Atlantic increased one-fourth by, [36]
• 〃 the only current that can heat arctic regions, [45]
• 〃 influence of, on climate of arctic regions, [45]
• 〃 the compensating warm current, [46]
• 〃 palæontological objections to influence of, [53]
• 〃 agencies which deflect the, in glacial periods, [69]
• 〃 result, if stopped, [71]
• 〃 large portion of the heat derived from southern hemisphere, [94]
• 〃 Lieut. Maury on propulsion of, by specific gravity, [102]
• 〃 contradictory nature of, the causes supposed by Lieut. Maury for the, [110]
• 〃 higher temperature of, considered by Lieut. Maury as the real cause of its motion, [111]
• 〃 amount of heat conveyed by, not over-estimated, [197]
• 〃 amount of heat conveyed by, [192]
• 〃 amount of heat conveyed by, compared with that by general oceanic circulation, [194]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, compared with that received by torrid zone from the sun, [194]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, into Arctic Ocean compared with that received by it from the sun, [195]
• 〃 Capt. Nares’s observations of, [198]
• 〃 Dr. Carpenter’s estimate of the thermal work of, [199]
• Gulf-stream, volume and temperature of, according to Mr. A. G. Findlay, [203], [206]
• 〃 erroneous notion regarding depth of, [207]
• 〃 list of papers relating to, [556]
• Haughton, Professor, on recent trees in arctic regions, [263]
• 〃 on fragments of granite in carboniferous limestone, [296]
• 〃 on coal beds of arctic regions, [298]
• 〃 on Ammonites of Oolitic period in arctic regions, [303]
• Hayes, Dr., on Greenland ice-sheet, [379]
• Heat received from the sun per day, [26]
• 〃 received by temperate regions from the sun, [34]
• 〃 radiant, absorbed by ice remains insensible, [60]
• 〃 sun’s, amount of, stored up in ground, [87]
• 〃 transferred from southern to northern hemisphere, [93]
• 〃 internal, supposed influence of, [176]
• 〃 received by the three zones compared with that received by the equator, [194]
• 〃 amount radiated from the sun, [346]
• 〃 received by polar regions [11],700 years ago, [403]
• 〃 necessary to glacier-motion, [515]
• 〃 how transmitted through ice, [517]
• Heat-vibrations, nature of, [544]
• Heath, Mr. D. D., on glacial submergence, [387]
• Heer, Professor, on Dürnten lignite beds, [241]
• 〃 on Miocene flora of Greenland, [308−310]
• 〃 on Miocene flora of Spitzbergen, [309]
• Hills, ice-markings on summits of, as evidence of continental ice, [458]
• Helmholtz’s gravitation theory of sun’s heat, [348]
• Henderson, Mr. John, on inter-glacial bed at Redhall quarry, [247]
• Herschel, Sir John, on influence of eccentricity, [11]
• 〃 estimate of the Gulf-stream by, [25]
• 〃 on the amount of the sun’s heat, [26]
• 〃 on inadequacy of specific gravity to produce ocean-currents, [116]
• 〃 his objections to specific gravity not accepted, [117]
• 〃 on influence of eccentricity on climate, [529]
• Home, Mr. Milne, on buried river channels, [478]
• Hooker, Sir W., on tree dug up by Capt. Belcher, [264]
• Hooker, Dr., on preponderance of ferns among coal plants, [421]
• Horne, Mr. J., on conglomerates of Isle of Man, [295]
• Hoxne, inter-glacial bed of, [241]
• Hudson’s Bay, low mean temperature of, in June, [62]
• Hull, Professor, on ice-action during Permian age in Ireland, [299]
• 〃 on equable temperature of Coal period, [421]
• 〃 on estuarine origin of coal measures, [424]
• Hull, buried channel at, [489]
• Humboldt, Baron, on loss of heat from radiation, [82]
• 〃 on rate of growth of coal, [429]
• 〃 on influence of eccentricity on climate, [538]
• Humphreys and Abbot on sediment of Mississippi, [330]
• Ice, latent heat of, [60]
• Ice, effects of removal of, from polar regions, [64]
• 〃 heat absorbed by, employed wholly in mechanical work, [60]
• 〃 slope necessary for motion of continental, [375]
• 〃 does not shear in the solid state, [516]
• 〃 how heat is transmitted through, [517]
• 〃 how it can ascend a slope, [525]
• 〃 how it can excavate a rock basin, [525]
• Icebergs do not striate sea-bottom, [272]
• 〃 markings made by, are soon effaced, [273]
• 〃 exerting little pressure perform little work, [273]
• 〃 behaviour of, when stranded, [274]
• 〃 action of, on sea-bottoms, [274]
• 〃 rocks ground smooth, but not striated by, [276]
• 〃 stones seldom seen on, [281]
• 〃 evidence of, in Miocene formation of Italy, [307]
• 〃 comparative thickness of arctic and antarctic, [381]
• 〃 great thickness of antarctic, [382]
• Ice-cap, effects of, on the earth’s centre of gravity, [369]
• 〃 probable thickness of antarctic, [375]
• 〃 evidence from icebergs as to thickness of antarctic, [383−385]
• Ice-markings, modern, observed by Sir Charles Lyell, [280]
• Ice-sheet, probable thickness of in Greenland, [380]
• 〃 of north of England, [456]
• Ice-worn pebbles found on summit of Allermuir, [441]
• Iceland, lignite of Miocene age in, [308]
• 〃 probably glaciated by land-ice from North Greenland, [451]
• India, evidences of glacial action of Carboniferous age in, [297]
• Indian Ocean, low temperature at bottom, [123]
• Internal heat, no influence on climate, [6]
• 〃 supposed influence of, [176]
• Inter-tropical regions, greater portion of moisture falls as rain, [29]
• Inter-glacial bed at Slitrig, [243]
• 〃 at Chapelhall, [244]
• 〃 of Craiglockhart hill, [245]
• 〃 at Kilmaurs, [248]
• Inter-glacial beds, Professor Geikie on, [243]
• 〃 of Dürnten, [240]
• 〃 of Scotland, [243]
• 〃 of England, [249]
• 〃 at Norwich, [250]
• 〃 evidence of, from borings, [254]
• Inter-glacial character of cave and river deposits, [251]
• Inter-glacial climate during Old Red Sandstone period in arctic regions, [295]
• Inter-glacial periods, [236]
• 〃 reason why overlooked, [237]
• 〃 of Switzerland, [239]
• 〃 evidence of, from shell-beds, [252]
• 〃 evidence from striated pavements of, [255]
• 〃 reasons why so few vestiges remain of, [257]
• 〃 in arctic regions, [258−265]
• 〃 of Silurian age in arctic regions, [293]
• 〃 of Carboniferous age in arctic regions, [297]
• 〃 of Eocene formation in Switzerland, [306]
• 〃 formation of coal during, [420]
• 〃 length of, indicated by thickness of coal-seams, [428]
• Inglefield, Captain, erect trees found in Greenland by, [309]
• Ireland, on ice-action during Permian age in, [299]
• Isbister, Mr., on carboniferous limestone of arctic regions, [297]
• Islay, Cambrian conglomerate of, [292]
• Italy, glacial epoch of Miocene period in, [306]
• Jack, Mr. R. L., on deflection of ice across England, [461]
• Jamieson, Mr. T. F., on boulder clay of Caithness, [435]
• 〃 opinion that Caithness was glaciated by floating ice, [437]
• 〃 on thickness of ice in the north Highlands, [439]
• 〃 glaciation of headland of Fraserburgh, [450], [455]
• January temperature of Glasgow and Cumberland, difference between, [72]
• Jeffreys, Mr. Gwyn, on Swedish glacial shell beds, [253]
• Johnston, Dr. A. Keith, on coast-line of the globe, [337]
• Joule’s, Dr., experiments on the thermal effect of tension, [552]
• Judd, Mr., on boulders of Jurassic age in the Highlands, [302]
• Jukes, Mr., on warm climate of North Greenland during Oolitic period, [302]
• July, why hotter than June, [89]
• Kane, Dr., on mean temperature of Von Rensselaer Harbour, [62]
• Karoo beds, glacial character of, [301]
• 〃 evidence of subtropical during deposition of, [301]
• Kelvin, ancient bed of, [481]
• Kielsen, Mr., excursion upon Greenland ice-sheet, by, [378]
• Kilmours, inter-glacial bed at, [248]
• Kirwan, Richard, on influence of eccentricity on climate, [529]
• Kyles of Bute, southern shell bed in, [253]
• Labrador, mean temperature of, for January, [72]
• 〃 Mr. Packard on glacial phenomena of, [282]
• Lagrange, M., on eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, [54]
• 〃 table of superior limits of eccentricity, [531]
• Land at equator would retain the heat at equator, [30]
• 〃 radiates heat faster than water, [91]
• 〃 elevation of, will not explain glacial epoch, [391]
• 〃 submergence and emergence during glacial epoch, [368−397]
• 〃 successive upheavals and depressions of, [391]
• Land-ice necessarily exerts enormous pressure, [274]
• 〃 evidence of former, from erratic blocks on stratified deposits, [269]
• Land-surfaces, remains of glaciation found chiefly on, [267]
• 〃 (ancient) scarcity of, [268]
• Laplace, M., on obliquity of ecliptic, [398]
• Laughton, Mr., on cause of Gibraltar current, [215]
• Leith Walk, inter-glacial bed at, [246]
• Leverrier, M., on superior limit of eccentricity, [54]
• 〃 on obliquity of ecliptic, [398]
• 〃 table, by, of superior limits of eccentricity, [531]
• 〃 formulæ, of, [312]
• Lignite beds of Dürnten, [240]
• Loess, origin of, [452]
• London, temperature of, raised 40° degrees by Gulf-stream, [43]
• Lomonds, ice-worn pebbles found on, [439]
• Lubbock, Sir J., on cave and river deposits, [252]
• Lucy, Mr. W. C., on glaciation of West Somerset, [463]
• 〃 on northern derivation of drift on Cotteswold hills, [460]
• Lyell’s, Sir C., theory of the effect of distribution of land and water, [8]
• 〃 on action of river-ice, [280]
• 〃 on tropical character of the fauna of the Cretaceous formation, [305]
• 〃 on warm conditions during Miocene period in Greenland, [307]
• 〃 on influence of eccentricity, [324]
• 〃 on sediment of Mississippi, [331]
• 〃 on comparison of existing rocks with those removed, [362]
• 〃 on submerged areas during Tertiary period, [392]
• 〃 on change of obliquity of ecliptic, [418]
• 〃 on climate best adapted for coal plants, [420]
• 〃 on influence of eccentricity on climate, [529], [535]
• Mackintosh, Mr., observations on the glaciation of Wastdale Crag, [457]
• Magellan, Straits of, temperature at midsummer, [61]
• Mahony, Mr. J. A., on Crofthead inter-glacial bed, [248]
• Mälar Lake crossed by ice, [447]
• Man, Isle of, Mr. Cumming on glacial origin of Old Red Sandstone of, [294]
• Mars, uncertainty as to its climatic condition, [80]
• 〃 objection from present condition of, [79]
• Marine denudation trifling, [337]
• Markham, Clements, on density of Gulf-stream water, [129]
• 〃 on motion of icebergs in Davis’ Straits, [133]
• Martins’s, Professor Charles, objections, [79]
• Mathews, Mr., on Canon Moseley’s experiment, [499]
• Maury, Lieutenant, his estimate of the Gulf-stream, [25]
• 〃 his theory examined, [95]
• 〃 on temperature as a cause of difference of specific gravity, [102]
• 〃 on difference of saltness as a cause of ocean-currents, [103]
• 〃 discussion of his views of the causes of ocean-currents, [104]
• 〃 his objection to wind theory of ocean-currents, [211]
• McClure, Captain, discovery of ancient forest in Banks’s Land, [261]
• Mecham, Lieutenant, discovery of recent trees in Prince Patrick’s Island, [261]
• Mechanics of gravitation theory, [145]
• Mediterranean shells in glacial shell bed of Udevalla, [253]
• 〃 shells in glacial beds at Greenock, [254]
• Meech, Mr., on amount of sun’s rays cut off by the atmosphere, [26]
• 〃 on influence of eccentricity on climate, [540]
• Melville Island, summer temperature of, [65]
• 〃 discovery of recent trees in, [262]
• 〃 plants found in coal of, [298]
• Mer de Glace, Professor Tyndall’s observations on, [498]
• Meteoric theory of sun’s heat, [347]
• Method of measuring rate of denudation, [329]
• Miller, Hugh, on absence of hills in the land of the Coal period, [431]
• Migration of plants and animals, how influenced by ocean-currents, [231]
• 〃 across equator, [234]
• Millichen, remarkable section of drift at, [483]
• Miocene glacial period, [286]
• Miocene period, glacial epoch of, in Italy, [306]
• Miocene, warm period of, in Greenland, [307]
• Miocene and Eocene periods, date of, [357]
• Mississippi, amount of sediment in, [330]
• 〃 volume of, [330]
• Mitchell, Mr., on cause of Gulf-stream, [131]
• Molecular theory of origin of 〃Crevasses,” [521]
• 〃 modification of, [523]
• Moore, Mr. J. Carrick, on ice-action of Silurian age in Wigtownshire, [293]
• Moore, Mr. Charles, on grooved rocks in Bath district, [464]
• Morlot, M., on inter-glacial periods of Switzerland, [240]
• Moseley, Canon, experiment to determine unit of shear, [498]
• 〃 on motion of glaciers, [498]
• 〃 unit of shear uncertain, [504]
• 〃 his theory examined, [507]
• Motion of the sea, how communicated to a great depth, [136]
• Motion in space, origin of sun’s heat, [353]
• Mühry, M., on circumpolar basin, [133], [556]
• Mundsley, freshwater beds of, [250]
• Muncke on the expansion of sea-water, [118]
• Murchison, Sir R., on southern shells at Worcester, [253]
• 〃 on trees in arctic regions, [262]
• 〃 on striation of islands in the Baltic, [448]
• Murphy’s, Mr., theory, [66]
• Musselburgh, section of contorted drift near, [465]
• Nares, Captain, on low temperature of antarctic regions, [64]
• 〃 discovery of great depth of warm water in North Atlantic, [198]
• 〃 estimate of volume and temperature of Gulf-stream, [198]
• 〃 temperature soundings by, [119], [222]
• 〃 thermal condition of Southern Ocean, [225]
• Natal, boulder clay of, [300]
• Newberry, Professor, on inter-glacial peat-bed of Ohio, [249]
• 〃 on boulder of quartzite found in seam of coal, [296]
• Nicholson, Dr., on Wastdale Crag, [457]
• Nicol, Professor, on inter-glacial buried channel, [244]
• Nordenskjöld, Professor, on inland ice of Greenland, [379]
• North Sea rendered shallow by drift deposits, [443]
• Northern seas probably filled with land-ice during glacial period, [438]
• Northern hemisphere, condition of, when deprived of heat from ocean-current, [68]
• Norway, southern species in glacial shell beds, [253]
• Norwich Crag, its glacial character, [249]
• Norwich fluvio-marine beds, [250]
• Norwich inter-glacial beds, [250]
• Obliquity of ecliptic, its effects on climate, [398−419]
• 〃 change of, influence on sea-level, [403]
• 〃 Lieutenant-Colonel Drayson on, [410]
• 〃 Mr. Belt on change of, [415]
• 〃 Sir Charles Lyell on change of, [418]
• Ocean, imperfect conception of its area, [135]
• 〃 condition of, inconsistent with the gravitation theory, [136]
• 〃 low temperature at bottom a result of under currents, [142]
• 〃 circulation, pressure as a cause of, [187]
• 〃 antiquity of, [367]
• Ocean-currents, absolute heating power of, [23]
• 〃 influence of, on normal temperatures overlooked, [40]
• 〃 maximum effects of, reached at equator and poles, [49]
• 〃 compensatory at only one point, [49]
• 〃 heating effects of, greatest at the poles, [50]
• 〃 cooling effects of, greatest at equator, [50]
• 〃 earth not habitable without, [51]
• 〃 result of deflection into Southern Ocean, [68]
• 〃 palæontological objections against influence of, [53]
• 〃 deflection of, the chief cause of changes of climate, [68]
• 〃 how deflected by eccentricity, [69]
• 〃 deflected by trade-winds, [70]
• 〃 temperature of southern hemisphere lowered by transference of heat to northern hemisphere by, [92]
• 〃 take their rise in the Southern Ocean, [92]
• 〃 cause of, never specially examined by physicists, [95]
• 〃 if due to specific gravity, strongest on cold hemisphere, [97]
• 〃 if due to eccentricity, strongest on warm hemisphere, [97]
• 〃 if due to specific gravity, act only by descent, [99]
• 〃 mode by which specific gravity causes, [100], [101]
• 〃 the true method of estimating the amount of heat conveyed by, [207]
• 〃 due to system of winds, [212]
• 〃 system of, agrees with the system of the winds, [213]
• 〃 how they mutually intersect, [219]
• 〃 in relation to climate, [226]
• 〃 direction of, depends on direction of winds, [227]
• 〃 causes which deflect, affect climate, [228]
• 〃 in relation to distribution of plants and animals, [231]
• 〃 effects of, on Greenland during glacial period, [260]
• Œpinus on influence of eccentricity on climate, [529]
• Ohio inter-glacial beds, [249]
• Old Red Sandstone, evidence of ice-action in conglomerate of, [294], [295]
• Oolite of Sutherlandshire, [454]
• Oolitic period, evidence of ice-action during, [301−303]
• 〃 warm climate in North Greenland during, [302]
• Organic remains, absence of, in glacial conglomerate of Upper Miocene period, [286]
• Organic life, paucity of, a characteristic of glacial periods, [287]
• Orkney Islands, glaciated by land-ice, [444]
• Osborne, Captain, remarks on recent forest trees in arctic regions, [262], [263]
• Oudemans, Dr., on planet Mars, [80]
• Overton Quarry, inter-glacial bed in, [247]
• Pacific Ocean, depth of, [147]
• Packard, Mr., on glacial phenomena of Labrador, [282]
• Page, Professor, on temperate climate of Coal period, [422]
• 〃 on character of coal plants, [421]
• 〃 on old watercourse at Hailes quarry, [490]
• Palæontological objections against influence of ocean-currents, [53]
• Palæontological evidence of last glacial period, [285]
• Parry, Captain, discovery of recent trees in Melville Island by, [262]
• Peach, Mr. C. W., on inter-glacial bed at Leith Walk, [246]
• 〃 on boulder clay of Caithness, [436]
• 〃 on striated rock surfaces in Cornwall, [464]
• Peach, Mr. B. N., on striation of Caithness, [453]
• Pengelly, Mr. W., on raised beaches, [407]
• Perigee, nearness of sun in, cause of snow and ice, [74]
• Perihelion, warm conditions at maximum when winter solstice is at, [77]
• Permian period, evidence of ice-action in, [298−303]
• Perthshire hills, ice-worn surfaces at elevations of [2],200 feet on the, [440]
• Petermann, Dr. A., on Dr. Carpenter’s theory, [138]
• 〃 on thermal condition of the sea, [138]
• 〃 chart of Gulf-stream and Polar current, [219]
• 〃 Geogr. Mittheilungen of, list of papers in relation to arctic regions, [556]
• Phillips, Professor, on influence of eccentricity on climate, [539]
• Poisson’s theory of hot and cold parts of space, [7]
• Polar regions, effect of removal of ice from, [64]
• 〃 influence of ice on climate, [64]
• 〃 low summer temperature of, [66]
• Polar cold considered by Dr. Carpenter the primum mobile of ocean-currents, [173]
• 〃 confusion of ideas regarding its influence, [180]
• 〃 influence of, according to Dr. Carpenter, [180]
• Polar ice-cap, displacement of the earth’s centre of gravity by, [368]
• Port Bowen, mean temperature of, [63]
• Portobello, striated pavements near, [255], [256]
• Post-tertiary formations, hypothetical thickness of, [366]
• Pouillet, M., on the amount of the sun’s heat, [26]
• 〃 on amount of sun’s rays cut off by the atmosphere, [26]
• Pratt, Archdeacon, on glacial submergence, [387]
• Prestwich, Professor, on Hoxne inter-glacial bed, [241]
• Pressure as a cause of circulation, [187]
• Principles of geology, nature of, [4]
• Prince Patrick’s Island, discovery of recent tree in, [261]
• Radiation, rate of, increases with increase of temperature, [37]
• 〃 of gases, [38]
• 〃 the way by which the earth loses heat, [39]
• 〃 how affected by snow covering the ground, [58]
• 〃 how affected by humid air, [59]
• 〃 accelerated by increased formation of snow and ice, [75]
• Raised beaches, date of, [407]
• 〃 Mr. Pengelly on, [407]
• Ramsay, Professor, on glacial origin of Old Red Sandstone of North of England, [294]
• 〃 on Old Red Sandstone, [367]
• 〃 on geological time, [343]
• 〃 on ice-action during Permian period, [298]
• 〃 on boulders of Permian age in Natal, [301]
• 〃 on thickness of stratified rocks of Britain, [267], [361]
• Redhall Quarry, inter-glacial bed in, [247]
• Red Sea, why almost rainless, [30]
• Regelation, rationale of, [520], [554]
• 〃 Professor James Thomson on cause of, [554]
• 〃 Professor Faraday on cause of, [554]
• Regnault, M., on specific heat of sandstone, [86]
• Reynaud, Jean, on influence of eccentricity on climate, [541]
• Rhine, ancient, bed in German Ocean, [480]
• Ridge between Capes Trafalgar and Spartel, influence of, [167]
• Rink, Dr., on inland ice of Greenland, [380]
• River-ice, effect of, [279]
• River-ice does not produce striations, [279]
• River systems, carrying-power measure of denudation, [336]
• River valleys, how striated across, [525]
• Robertson, Mr. David, on Crofthead and Hillhead inter-glacial beds, [247], [248]
• 〃 on foraminifera in red clay, [485]
• Rock-basins, how excavated by ice, [525]
• Rocks removed by denudation, [361]
• Ross, Capt. Sir James, on South Shetland, [61]
• 〃 on temperature of antarctic regions in summer, [63]
• Sandwich Land, description by Capt. Cook, [60]
• 〃 cold summers of, not due to latitude, [64]
• Salter, Mr., on carboniferous fossils of arctic regions, [298]
• 〃 on warm climate of North Greenland during Oolitic period, [302]
• Saltness of the ocean, difference of, as a cause of motion, [103]
• 〃 in direct opposition to temperature in producing ocean-currents, [104]
• Scandinavian ice, track of, [447]
• Scandinavian ice-sheet in the North Sea, [444]
• Scoresby, Dr., on condition of arctic regions in summer, [58], [62]
• 〃 on density of Gulf-stream water, [129]
• Scotland, inter-glacial beds of, [243−249]
• 〃 evidence of ice-action in carboniferous conglomerate of, [296]
• 〃 buried under ice, [439]
• 〃 ice-sheet of, in North Sea, [442]
• 〃 why ice-sheet was so thick, [452]
• Sea, height of, at equator above poles, [119]
• 〃 rise of, due to combined effect of eccentricity and obliquity, [403]
• 〃 bottoms not striated by icebergs, [272]
• Sea and land, present arrangement indispensable to life, [52]
• Sea-level, oscillations of, in relation to distribution, [394]
• 〃 oscillations of, during formation of coal measures, [424]
• 〃 raised, by melting of antarctic ice-cap, [388]
• 〃 influence of obliquity of ecliptic on, [403]
• Section of Mid-Atlantic, [222]
• Section across antarctic ice-cap, [377]
• Sedimentary rocks existing fragmentary, [361]
• 〃 of the globe, mean thickness of, hitherto unknown, [361]
• 〃 how mean thickness might be determined, [362]
• 〃 mean thickness of, over-estimated, [364]
• Shearing-force of ice, [496]
• 〃 momentary loss of, [518]
• Shetland islands glaciated by land-ice from Scandinavia, [450]
• Shetland, South, glacial condition of, [61]
• Shell-beds, evidence of warm inter-glacial periods from, [252]
• Shells of the boulder clay of Caithness, [450]
• Shore-ice, striations produced by, in Bay of Fundy, [280]
• Silurian period, ice-action in Ayrshire during, [293]
• 〃 evidence in Wigtownshire of ice-action during, [293]
• Slitrig, inter-glacial bed of, [243]
• Slope of surface of maximum density has no power to produce motion, [120]
• 〃 from equator to pole, erroneous view regarding, [120]
• Smith, Mr. Leigh, temperature soundings, [129]
• Smith, Mr., of Jordanhill, on striated pavements, [256]
• Snow, how radiation is affected by, [58]
• 〃 common in summer in arctic regions, [62]
• 〃 rate of accumulation of, increased by sun’s rays being cut off by fogs, [75]
• 〃 formation increased by radiation, [75]
• Somerset, West, glaciation of, [463]
• Somerville, Mrs., on influence of eccentricity on climate, [540]
• South Africa, glaciation of, [242]
• 〃 boulder clay of Permian age in, [300]
• South of England ice-sheet, [463]
• South Shetland, glacial condition of, at mid summer, [61]
• South-west winds, heat conveyed by, not derived from equatorial regions, [28]
• 〃 heat conveyed by, derived from Gulf-stream, [28]
• Southern hemisphere, present extension of ice on, due partly to eccentricity, [78]
• 〃 why colder than northern, [81−92]
• 〃 absorbs more heat than the northern, [90]
• 〃 lower temperature of, due to ocean-currents, [92]
• 〃 surface currents from, warmer than under currents to, [92]
• 〃 glacial and inter-glacial periods of, [242]
• Southern Ocean, thermal condition of, [225]
• Specific gravity can act only by causing water to descend a slope, [99]
• 〃 mode of action in causing ocean-currents, [100]
• 〃 inadequacy of, to produce ocean-currents demonstrated by Sir John Herschel, [116]
• Spitzbergen, Gulf-stream and under current at, [134]
• 〃 Miocene flora of, [309]
• Stellar space, temperature of, [35]
• 〃 received temperature of, probably too high, [39]
• Stewart, Professor Balfour, experiment on radiation, [37]
• 〃 on cause of glacial cold, [79]
• Stirling, Mr., on old watercourse near Grangemouth, [481]
• St. John’s River, action of ice on banks of, [279]
• St. Lawrence, action of ice on bank of river, [279]
• Stockwell, Mr., on eccentricity of earth’s orbit, [54]
• 〃 on obliquity of ecliptic, [399]
• 〃 table of superior limits of eccentricity, [531]
• Stone, Mr., on eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, [322]
• Stow, G. W., on glacial beds of South Africa, [242]
• 〃 on Karoo beds, [301]
• Striæ, direction of, show the clay of Caithness came from the sea, [436]
• Striations obliterated rather than produced by icebergs, [274]
• Striated pavements why so seldom observed, [256]
• 〃 evidence of inter-glacial periods from, [255]
• Striated stones found in conglomerate of Lower Carboniferous age by Professor Geikie, [296]
• 〃 in Permian breccias, [299]
• 〃 in the glacial conglomerate of the Superga, Turin, [306]
• Stratified rocks may be formed at all possible rates, [360]
• 〃 rate of formation of, as estimated by Professor Huxley, [363]
• Struve, M., formula of obliquity of ecliptic, [404]
• Subaërial denudation, rate of, [331]
• Submarine forests, [409]
• 〃 (ancient), coal seams the remains of, [428]
• Submergence, physical causes of, [368]
• 〃 coincident with glaciation, [389]
• 〃 of land resulting from melting of antarctic ice-cap, [389]
• 〃 how affected by fluidity of interior of the earth, [395]
• 〃 necessary for preservation of coal plants, [423]
• 〃 frequent during formation of coal beds, [426]
• Subsidence insufficient to account for general submergence, [390]
• 〃 necessary to accumulation of coal seams, [427]
• Sun supposed by some to be a variable star, [8]
• 〃 maximum and minimum distance of, [55]
• 〃 rays of, cut off by fogs in ice-covered regions, [60]
• 〃 nearness in perigee a cause of snow and ice, [74]
• 〃 total amount of heat radiated from, [346]
• 〃 age and origin of, [346]
• 〃 source of its energy, [347]
• 〃 heat of, origin and chief source of, [349]
• 〃 originally an incandescent mass, [350]
• 〃 energy of, may have originally been derived from motion in space, [355]
• Surface currents which cross the equator warmer than the compensatory under currents, [92]
• Surface currents from poles to equator, according to Maury, produced by saltness, [108]
• Sutherland, Dr., observations by, on stranding of icebergs, [275]
• 〃 testimony, that icebergs do not striate rocks, [278]
• 〃 on the boulder clay of Natal, [300]
• Sutherland, boulder conglomerate of Oolitic period of, [302]
• Sweden, Southern, shells in glacial shell beds of, [253]
• Switzerland, inter-glacial period of, [239]
• 〃 M. Morlat on inter-glacial periods of, [240]
• 〃 gravels of, by Mr. James Geikie, [268]
• 〃 Eocene glacial epoch in, [305]
• Table of June temperatures in different latitudes, [65]
• 〃 soundings in temperate regions, [222]
• Tables of eccentricity, [314−321]
• 〃 of eccentricity, explanation of, [322]
• Tay, valley of, striated across, [526]
• 〃 ancient buried channel of, [490]
• Temperate regions, cold periods best marked in, [258]
• Temperature of space, [532]
• 〃 reasons why it should be reconsidered, [39]
• Temperature (mean) of equator and poles compared, [41]
• 〃 why so low in polar regions during summer, [66]
• 〃 how difference of specific gravity is caused by, [102]
• 〃 higher, of the waters of Gulf-stream considered by Lieutenant Maury as the real causes of its motion, [111]
• 〃 of sea at equator decreases most rapidly at the surface, [119]
• 〃 of Greenland in Miocene period, [310]
• 〃 of poles when obliquity was at its superior limit, [402]
• Tension, effect of, on ice, [522]
• 〃 the cause of the cooling effect produced by, [552]
• Tertiary period, climate of, error in regard to, [288]
• Thermal condition of Southern Ocean, [225]
• Thibet, table-land of, [418]
• Thomson, Professor James, on cause of regelation, [554]
• 〃 theory of glacier-motion, [512]
• Thomson, Mr. James, on glacial conglomerate in Arran, [299]
• 〃 on ice-action in Cambrian conglomerate of Islay, [292]
• Thomson, Professor Wyville, on Dr. Carpenter’s theory, [129]
• 〃 cited, [130]
• 〃 thermal condition of the sea, [138]
• Thomson, Sir W., amount of internal heat passing through earth’s crust, [142]
• 〃 on limit to age of the globe, [343]
• 〃 on influence of ice-cap on sea-level, [372]
• 〃 climate not affected by internal heat, [6]
• 〃 earth’s axis of rotation permanent, [7]
• 〃 on volume and mass of the sun, [347]
• Tidal wave, effect of friction, [336]
• Tides, supposed argument from, [184]
• Time, geological, [311−359]
• 〃 as represented by geological phenomena, [326]
• 〃 represented by existing rocks, [361]
• Torrid zone, annual quantity of heat received by, per unit of surface, [194]
• Towncroft farm, section of channel at, [474]
• Towson, Mr., on icebergs of Southern Ocean, [383]
• Trade-winds (anti), heat conveyed by, over-estimated, [28]
• 〃 (anti) derive their heat from the Gulf-stream, [32]
• 〃 of warm hemisphere overborne by those of cold hemisphere, [70]
• 〃 causes which determine the strength of, [70]
• 〃 strongest on glaciated hemisphere, [70]
• 〃 reaction upon trade-winds by formation of snow and ice, [76]
• 〃 influence of, in turning ocean-currents on warm hemisphere, [97]
• 〃 do not explain the antarctic current, [211]
• Tiddeman on North of England ice-sheet, [458]
• 〃 displacement of, [230]
• Transport of boulders and rubbish the proper function of icebergs, [281]
• Trafalgar, effect of ridge between Capes Spartel and on Gibraltar current, [167]
• Turner, Professor, on arctic seal found at Grangemouth, [485]
• Tylor, Alfred, on denudation of Mississippi basin, [333]
• Tyndall, Professor, on heat in aqueous vapour, [29]
• 〃 on sifted rays, [47]
• 〃 on diathermancy of air, [59]
• 〃 on glacial epoch, [78]
• Udevalla, Mediterranean shell in glacial shells, bed of, [253]
• Under currents to southern hemisphere colder than surface currents from, [92]
• 〃 produced by saltness, flow from equator to poles, [106]
• 〃 account for cold water at equator, [124], [142]
• 〃 in Davis’ Strait, [134]
• 〃 take path of least resistance, [130]
• 〃 why considered improbable, [135]
• 〃 difficulty regarding, obviated, [217]
• 〃 theory of, [217]
• Underground temperature, Professor J. D. Forbes on, [86]
• Underground temperature exerts no influence on the climate, [88]
• 〃 absolute amount of heat derived from, [142]
• 〃 supposed influence of, [176]
• Uniformity, modern doctrine of, [325]
• United States’ coast survey of Gulf-stream, [24]
• 〃 hydrographic department, papers published by, [556]
• Unstratified boulder clay must be the product of land-ice, [437]
• Upsala and Stockholm striated by Baltic glacier, [447]
• Vertical circulation, Lieutenant Maury’s theory of, [108]
• 〃 according to Dr. Carpenter, [153]
• Vertical descent of polar column caused by extra pressure of water upon it, [154]
• 〃 effects of, and slope, the same, whether performed simultaneously or alternately, [159]
• 〃 of polar column illustrated by diagram, [160]
• Vertical distribution of heat in the ocean, Mr. Buchanan’s theory, [550]
• Vogt, Professor, on Dürnten lignite bed, [241]
• Warm hemisphere made warmer by increased reaction of physical causes, [76]
• Warm periods best marked in arctic regions, [258]
• 〃 in arctic regions, evidence of, [261]
• 〃 better represented by fossils than cold periods, [288]
• 〃 evidence of, during Cretaceous age, [304]
• Warm inter-glacial periods in arctic regions, [258−265]
• Water at equator the best means of distributing heat derived from the sun, [30]
• Water, a worse radiator than land, [91]
• Wastdale granite boulders, difficulty of accounting for transport of, [456]
• Wastdale Crag glaciated by continental ice, [457]
• Weibye, M., striation observed by, [280]
• Wilkes, Lieutenant, on cold experienced in antarctic regions in summer, [63]
• Wellington Sound, ancient trees found at, [265]
• Winter-drift of ice on coast of Labrador, [276]
• West winds, moisture of, derived from Gulf-stream, [29]
• Wind, work in impelling currents, [219]
• Winds, ocean-currents produced by, [212]
• 〃 system of, agrees with the system of ocean-currents, [213]
• Wind theory of oceanic circulation, [210]
• 〃 crucial test of, [220]
• Wigtownshire, ice-action during Silurian age, [293]
• Work performed by descent of polar column, [157]
• Wood, Mr. Nicholas, on buried channel, [488]
• Wood, Jun., Mr. Searles, middle drift, [250]
• 〃 on occurrence of chalk débris in south-west of England, [460]
• Woodward, Mr. H. B., on boulder clay in Devonshire, [463]
• Wunsch, Mr. E. A., on glacial conglomerate in Arran, [299]
• Yare, ancient buried channel of, [489]
• Young, Mr. J., objection considered, [482]
• Yorkshire drift common in south of England, [460]
• Zenger, Professor, on the moon’s influence on climate, [324]

THE END.