That it acts constantly in opposition to the attraction of cohesion or of aggregation, by which bodies pass from a solid to a fluid, and from a fluid to an aeriform state, and produces also different changes in bodies,—are facts that come under our daily observation.
It occasions changes in the bulk of bodies; hence solids, liquids, and gases are expanded. The expansion, and subsequent contraction of atmospheric air, give rise to various winds, which are currents of air rushing from one point of the compass to another to maintain an equilibrium. The theory of the winds is predicated on this fact, although some have asserted, that they depend greatly on the diurnal motion of the earth. The air thermometer of Sanctorius, and the differential thermometer of Leslie, are founded on this principle, of the expansion of air. Fluids expand until they arrive at the boiling point, as is the case with water, alcohol, &c. The expansion of mercury, in a glass tube, furnished with a graduated scale, forms the mercurial thermometer, by the rise and fall of which, the different variations of temperature are marked.
Notwithstanding caloric has the property of expanding bodies, there are some exceptions to this law, which may be proper to notice. Water, for instance, at the temperature below 40° contracts at every increment of temperature until it reaches 40°, which is its maximum of density. Above 40° it expands, until it arrives at the boiling point. Alumina, or pure argillaceous earth, also contracts by heat; hence it is used in the pyrometer of Wedgwood, to measure by its contraction intense degrees of heat. Various saline substances, in the act of crystallization, also expand. Several of the metals, when previously melted, on cooling exhibit the same character; and water, in the act of freezing, exerts a powerful force by its expansion, competent to the bursting of shells, and the splitting of rocks.
The changes in bodies, produced by caloric, we have already noticed. We will only add, that fluids require different temperatures, called the boiling point, to make them boil, under the same atmospheric pressure. Water boils at 212°. Many observations have been made with respect to water, both in the state of ice, and the state of vapour. Besides the accession of 212 degrees of caloric, appreciable by the thermometer, in water in the state of steam, there is also an accession of non-distributable caloric, called latent heat, which is calculated at 1000°. In consequence of this circumstance, steam has been judiciously applied to various useful purposes, and particularly in a certain manner for the drying of gunpowder.
That chemical changes are produced by the agency of caloric, is a fact well known. It is supposed to occasion decompositions, according to the laws of affinity, by changing previous affinities, and causing new affinities to take place. Hence the operations by fire, whether the substances themselves are exposed in a dry state to the action of heat, or otherwise, produce new results, or compounds, which could not be made without it. This truth has long been obvious. In consequence of a knowledge of this fact, Dr. Black (Lectures vol. i, p. 12,) defined "chemistry to be the study of the effects of heat and mixture, with the view of discovering their general and subordinate laws, and of improving the useful arts."
Caloric as a powerful auxiliary, performing as it does an innumerable multitude of changes and effects, an agent by which the operations of the universe are maintained in order and harmony for universal good, exerts the same effect in the furnace of the chemist, as in the great laboratory of nature; and regulates, and determines all the consequences, which follow a succession of fixed, and appointed changes.[4]
We have thus, in this brief and hasty outline of the nature, principal effects, and properties of caloric, detailed the leading facts on this subject; from which it will be seen, that caloric, so far as respects its generation by the combustion of different pyro-mixtures, and effects, generally, should form a part of Pyrotechny, and claim the attention of those, who are connected with the preparation of Fire-Works.
Respiration is also a process which puts quiescent heat in motion.[5]
In the second part of the work, we embrace the furniture of a laboratory, for the use of fire-workers, consisting of various tools and utensils.