This religious ceremony is performed several times a day, and the different prayers are called (Sala’at el fejir) prayers at the dawn of day; (Sala’at el dohor) prayers at half-past one o’clock, P.M.; (Sala’at el assar) prayers at four o’clock, P.M.; (Sala’at el mogorb) prayers at sun-setting; and (Sala’at el ashaw) prayers an hour and an half after sun-setting. The principal of these prayers is the Sala’at el dohor, when all such as are desirous of being thought true Mohammedans go to the (Jamâa) mosque, on entering which, every one must take off his slippers. Every (Jma)[137] Friday, the Mufti preaches a discourse on religion, similar to the sermons of Christian priests. The mosques have square towers adjoining the body of the building; the principal side faces Mecca, on which is erected a flag-staff: and a white flag called (el Alem) the Signal, is hoisted every day at twelve o’clock, to warn the people out of hearing, or at a great distance, to prepare, by the necessary preliminary ablutions[138], to prostrate themselves before God at the Dohor service of prayer. At the dawn of day on every (Jma) Friday, the (Muden) man who announces the prayers from the summit of the principal mosque, chants a hymn out of the Koran, which being scientifically sung, in the stillness of the morning, makes a most pleasing impression on the mind. This hymn is concluded with the annunciation of the unity of God, and the glory of heaven, impressing the mind of the Mohammedan with that grand fundamental principle of Islaemism, the unity of God.
The people of this empire being born subjects of an arbitrary despot, they may be said to have no established laws; they know no other than the will of the prince, which is called (Shra el Mukkuzzen) military law, or (Amer Seedna) our Lord’s decree; and if this should deviate, as it sometimes does, from the moral principles laid down in the Koran, it must nevertheless be obeyed; for no appeal can be admitted against Amer Seedna, unless his Imperial Majesty should discover an error in judgment, in which case he, and he alone, can alter the decree. Where the Emperor resides, he administers justice, in person, generally twice, and sometimes four times a week, in the (M’shoire) place of audience, whither all complaints are carried:[139] here access is easy; he listens to every one, foreigners or subjects, men or women, rich or poor; there is no distinction, every one has a right to appear before him, and boldly to explain the nature of his case; and although his person is considered as sacred, and established custom obliges the subject to prostrate himself, and to pay him rather adoration than respect, yet every complainant may tell his story without the least hesitation or timidity; indeed, if any one is abashed, or appears diffident, his cause is weakened in proportion. Judgment is always prompt, decisive, plausible, and generally correct.
Civil law is administered by the (Cadi’s) judges, who have attached to their court several (Lokiels) attornies; some of whom manage civil controversies, others misdemeanors, and others matters relating to religion, marriages, divorces, &c. These controversies are decided by the laws of the Koran, than which, and the commentaries thereon, they have no other written law. When two persons are engaged in a law-suit, they retain their respective attornies; if they cannot settle the dispute, they go to the Cadi, who generally sets on the ground at the gate of his house, where any one may be present. The two disputants stand before him, surrounded by their respective friends; the plaintiff speaks first, the defendant replies: in these law-suits the respective claims of the suitors are investigated. The Arabs (however ignorant they may be in other respects) defend themselves, whether right or wrong, so long as they have hope of gain, or fear of loss; but their well laid plans to conceal the truth, and elude the purposes of justice, are often exposed and rendered abortive by the penetrating sagacity with which their pretensions are investigated by the Cadi. The Cadi takes the evidence of the witnesses, and pronounces sentence, which is sometimes without appeal. The culprit is then taken into custody till he has satisfied the law; but in cases where he is entitled to an appeal, it is made to the Emperor, who takes the opinion of the (L’Alemma) learned, and decides the controversy by pronouncing judgment. If the crime be punishable by death, the sentence is either executed, or the criminal is delivered over to the aggrieved, and may then purchase of him his life, by money or contrition.
In places remote from the Emperor’s court, the (Kalif) viceregent, or bashaw, has his M’shoire, where he administers justice, sometimes according to the laws of the Koran, and at others as his caprice dictates; for the same imperious despotism which the Emperor too frequently exercises over his bashaws and alkaids, is exercised by them over those who fall under their government; and the same is done again by their subalterns, when they have it in their power; thus tyranny proceeds progressively from the prince to the lowest of his officers: these petty tyrants are dispersed over the whole empire, and often give sanction to their extortions by effecting them in the name of their master; the accumulation of wealth is the grand object of all their desires; when they learn from their emissaries, or spies, that an individual has acquired considerable property, they contrive to find out some cause of accusation against him, and by that means extort money from him. It often happens, however, that those who amass the greatest sums in this way enjoy their ill gotten wealth but a very short time; some unexpected order from the Emperor, accusing them of crimes or misdemeanors, is made a pretext for depriving them, in their turn, of their property, which his majesty never fails to inform them can be of no use to them, being more than sufficient to procure the necessaries of life, and ought therefore to belong to the (Biet el Mel el Mooselmin) Mohammedan treasury, into which it is accordingly delivered, never more to return to its former possessor.
The influence of this mode of government upon the people is such as might naturally be expected; they are suspicious, deceitful, and cruel; they have no respect for their neighbours, but will plunder one another whenever it is in their power; they are strangers to every social tie and affection, for their hearts are scarcely susceptible of one tender impression; the father fears the son, the son the father; and this lamentable mistrust, and want of confidence, diffuses itself throughout the whole community.
The pride and arrogance of the Moors is unparalleled; for though they live in the most deplorable state of ignorance, slavery, and barbarism, yet they consider themselves the first people in the world, and contemptuously term all others barbarians. Their sensuality knows no bounds: by the laws of the Koran, they are allowed four wives, and as many concubines as they are able to support, but such is their wretched depravity, that they indulge in the most unnatural and abominable propensities;[140] in short, every vice that is disgraceful and degrading to human nature, is to be found amongst them.
It must be confessed, however, that some of the well educated Moors are courteous and polite, and are possessed of great suavity of manners. They are affable and communicative where they repose confidence; and if in conversation the subject of discussion be serious, and the parties become warm in dispute, they have generally the prudence to turn the subject in a delicate manner; they are slow at taking offence, but when irritated, are noisy and implacable.
There is one noble trait in the character of this people which I cannot avoid mentioning, that is fortitude under misfortune; this the Moor possesses in an eminent degree; he never despairs; no bodily suffering, no calamity, however great, will make him complain; he is resigned in all things to the will of God, and waits in patient hope for an amelioration of his condition. In illustration of this, I will take the liberty to relate the following anecdote, as it will also tend to show the great risks to which merchants are exposed in traversing this country, and Sahara, or the Great Desert.
A Fas merchant (with whom I had considerable transactions) went, with all his property, on a commercial speculation from Fas to Timbuctoo; and after remaining at the latter place a sufficient time to dispose of and barter his effects for gold dust and gum Soudan, he set out on his return to Fas; after passing the Desert, he began to congratulate himself on his good fortune and great success, when suddenly a party of Arabs attacked the (cafila) caravan, and plundered all who belonged to it, leaving the Fas merchant destitute of every thing but the clothes he had on his back. During the interregnum, between the death of the Sultan Yezzid and the proclamation of the present Sultan Soliman, this man was plundered again on his way to Mogodor, whither he was going to discharge some debts, and to dispose of gum and other Soudanic produce. Four wives and a numerous family of children rendered his case peculiarly distressing; yet, when condoling with him a few days after his misfortunes had happened, he very patiently observed (Ash men doua, Allah bra; u la illah, ila Allah), What remedy is there? God willed it so, and there is none but God. This man afterwards collected together what merchandize he could procure on credit, and proceeded again to Timbuctoo, where he realized much property, and travelling therewith through Wangara and Houssa to Egypt, he was plundered a third time of all he possessed, near Cairo, and reduced to the greatest distress: this last misfortune he bore with the same fortitude as the former. He is now, however, one of the principal merchants established at Timbuctoo.
The Moors are equal by birth; they know no difference of rank except such as is derived from official employments,[141] on resigning which the individual mixes again with the common class of citizens; the meanest man in the nation may thus aspire, without presumption, to the hand of the daughter of the most opulent, and accident, or the caprice of the prince, may precipitate the latter into misery, and elevate the former to prosperity and honour.