| 1. | Sebastiano del Piombo, Christopher Columbus (Metropolitan Museum, New York) | Frontispiece |
| 2. | Carpaccio, Meeting of Sts. Joachim and Anna. | Opposite page xxix |
| 3. | Titian, Emperor Charles V | xxxiv |
| 4. | Raphael, Drawing of Slaughter of Innocents. | On page [3] |
| 5. | Raphael, Dream of the Knight | Opposite page [4] |
| 6. | Raphael, School of Athens | Opposite page [8] |
| 7. | Raphael, Poetry (Mosaic, Vatican) | Opposite page [14] |
| 8. | Leonardo da Vinci, Madonna of the Rocks | Opposite page [20] |
| 9. | Raphael, Pope Julius II | Opposite page [37] |
| 10. | Fra Angelico, St Francis | Opposite page [53] |
| 11. | Perugino, Entombment (Pitti) | Opposite page [56] |
| 12. | Borgognone, St. Catharine of Alexandria | Opposite page [57] |
| 13. | Botticelli, Illustration for Dante | On page [61] |
| 14. | Bellini, Doge Loredano | Opposite page [62] |
| 15. | Correggio, Marriage of St. Catherine (Louvre) | Opposite page [66] |
| 16. | Gossaert, Virgin and Child Jesus (Italian Influence over Flemish) | Opposite page [69] |
| 17. | Van der Weyden, Mater Dolorosa | Opposite page [71] |
| 18. | Quentin Matsys, Legend of St. Ann (Centre) | Opposite page [73] |
| 19. | Van Oriey, Dr. Zelle | Opposite page [74] |
| 20. | Dürer, Title Page of Life of Blessed Virgin | On page [76] |
| 21. | Clouet, François, Elizabeth of Austria | On page [79] |
| 22. | Navarrete, St. Peter and St. Paul (Escurial) | On page [81] |
| 23. | Cespedes, The Last Supper (Cathedral, Cordova) | On page [83] |
| 24. | Bertoldo di Giovanni, Battle (Bargello) | Opposite page [85] |
| 25. | Rosselino, Antonio, Madonna | Opposite page [87] |
| 26. | Donatello, Gatamelata | Opposite page [91] |
| 27. | Benedetto Rovezzano, Chimney Piece | Opposite page [95] |
| 28. | Pulpit, Leyden | Opposite page [98] |
| 29. | Dürer, St John Baptist Preaching (Bas-relief in carved wood) | On page [100] |
| 30. | King Arthur (Innsbruck) | On page [103] |
| 31. | Henry VIII on Field of Cloth of Gold (Bas-relief, Rouen) | On page [104] |
| 32. | Goujon, Jewel Cabinet | On page [106] |
| 33. | Armor (fifteenth century, Paris) | On page [108] |
| 34. | Scent Box, chased gold | On page [111] |
| [{xxii}] | ||
| 35. | Seats (fifteenth century miniatures) | On page [112] |
| 36. | Clock (Paris) | On page [113] |
| 37. | Alberti, San Francesco (Rimini) | On page [115] |
| 38. | Michelangelo, St. Peter's (Rome) | On page [116] |
| 39. | Alberti, Rucellai Palace (Florence) | On page [119] |
| 40. | Court, Doge's Palace (Venice) | On page [121] |
| 41. | Palladio, Barbarano Palace (Vicenza) | On page [123] |
| 42. | Hotel de Ville (Louvain) | Opposite page [124] |
| 43. | Alcalá, Paranimfo | On page [125] |
| 44. | Alcalá, Archiepiscopal Palace Court | On page [126] |
| 45. | Cloister (Lupiana, Spain) | On page [128] |
| 46. | Toledo, Alcazar | On page [130] |
| 47. | Melozzo da Forli, Angel with Lute (Rome) | Opposite page [141] |
| 48. | Violin and Bass Viol, Germany | On page [144] |
| 49. | Verard, "Book of Hours" Border | On page [147] |
| 50. | Fouquet, Miniature Livy MSS. (Paris) | On page [150] |
| 51. | Tory, Border from "Book of Hours" | On page [157] |
| 52. | Tory, Page of Collines' "Book of Hours" | On page [160] |
| 53. | Dürer, Marriage of Blessed Virgin | On page [163] |
| 54. | Black Letter bordered page | On page [165] |
| 55. | Playing Card | On page [167] |
| 56. | Stratford Guild Chapel | On page [175] |
| 57. | Stratford, Sir Hugh Clopton's Bridge | On page [176] |
| 58. | Bramante, Court of Hospital (Milan) | On page [195] |
| 59. | Memling, Martyrdom of St. Ursula (Bruges, Hospital of St. Jean) | Opposite page [197] |
| 60. | Holbein, Sir Thomas More | Opposite page [223] |
| 61. | Matteo Civitale, Faith (Bargello) | Opposite page [243] |
| 62. | Holbein, Henry VIII (London) | Opposite page [255] |
| 63. | Filippino Lippi, Madonna with Four Saints | Opposite page [260] |
| 64. | Stradan, Columbus on First Voyage (niello, ivory) | On page [276] |
| 65. | Columbus' Title of Letter | On page [282] |
| 66. | Columbus' Page from Letter (1494-) | On page [283] |
| 67. | Hospital, Mexico (founded before 1524) | Opposite page [287] |
| 68. | Hospital, (another view) | Opposite page [287] |
| 69. | Crivelli, Madonna Enthroned | Opposite page [290] |
| 70. | Holbein, Queen Catherine of Aragon | Opposite page [293] |
| 71. | Titian, Presentation of Virgin | Opposite page [296] |
| 72. | Palma Vecchio, St. Barbara | Opposite page [304] |
| 73. | Mostaert, Virgo Deipara (Antwerp) | Opposite page [312] |
| 74. | Bellini, Madonna, St. Catherine and Mary Magdalen (Venice) | Opposite page [318] |
| 75. | Pinturicchio, Holy Family (Siena) | Opposite page [326] |
| 76. | Dürer, Nativity On | On page [339] |
| 77. | Vivarini, St. Clare | Opposite page [341] |
| 78. | Titian, Paracelsus | On page [386] |
| [{xxiii}] | ||
| 79. | Holbein, Dr. William Butts | Opposite page [413] |
| 80. | Cima da Conegliano, Christ (Dresden) | Opposite page [431] |
| 81. | Titian, Ariosto | Opposite page [443] |
| 82. | Palma Vecchio, Poet (sometimes called Ariosto) | Opposite page [449] |
| 83. | Francia, Virgin Weeping over Body of Christ (London) | Opposite page [477] |
| 84. | Page from early printed book, with woodcut | On page [487] |
| 85. | Theatre, Title Page of Terence | On page [491] |
| 86. | Mantegna, St. George | Opposite page [501] |
| 87. | Correggio, Blessed Virgin and St Sebastian | Opposite page [508] |
| 88. | Cima da Conegliano, Incredulity of St Thomas (Venice) | Opposite page [519] |
| 89. | Tory, Francis I's Court | On page [534] |
INTRODUCTION
To many people the date of the discovery of America must seem somewhat out of place. At least it must be hard for them to understand just how it came about that before the fifteenth century closed so great a discovery as this of a new continent could be made. The Middle Ages are usually said to end with the Fall of Constantinople (1453), though a number of historians in recent years have begun to date the close of mediaeval history with the discovery of America itself. It scarcely seems consonant with the usually accepted ideas of widespread ignorance, lack of scientific curiosity with dearth of initiative and absence of great human interests during the Middle Ages, that so important an achievement as the discovery of America should have come at this time. In spite of the growing knowledge that has revealed the wonderful achievements of the mediaeval period, there are still a great many people who think themselves well informed, for whom the thousand years from about 500 to 1500 seem almost a series of blank pages and it cannot but be very surprising to them that anyone should have been able to rise out of the slough of despond so far as regards human knowledge and enterprise which these times are often declared to represent, to the climax of energy and daring and conscious successful purpose required for the discovery of the Western Hemisphere. Apparently only a special dispensation of Providence preparing the modern time could possibly have brought this important discovery out of the Nazareth of the so-called "Dark Ages."
All sorts of explanations have been deemed necessary to account for Columbus' great discovery at this time. To some it has seemed to be the result of a happy accident by which one of the deeply original spirits among mankind, with the wanderlust in his soul, succeeded finally in having someone provide him with the opportunity for a long vague voyage on which fortunately the discovery of the Western Hemisphere was made. We hear much of happy accidents in scientific [{xxvi}] discoveries and they are supposed to represent the fortunate chances of humanity. It must not be forgotten, however, that only to genius do these happy accidents occur. Newton discovered the laws of gravitation after having seen the apple fall, but many billions of men had seen apples fall before his time without being led to the faintest hint of gravitation. Galvani touched the legs of a frog by accident with his metal implements while making electrical experiments, and so became "the frogs' dancing master" in the contemptuous phrase of many of his scientific colleagues and the father of biological electricity for us, but doubtless many others lacking his scientific insight had seen this phenomenon without having their attention particularly caught by it.
It has been suggested that not a little of the good fortune that resulted in the discovery of the American Continent was due to Columbus' obstinacy of character. He was a man who, having conceived an idea, was bound to carry it out, cost what it might. These are, of course, the men as a rule who make advances and discoveries and obtain privileges for us. They are not satisfied to be as others, and the world usually denominates them cranks. They insist on doing things differently and their vision of great achievement does not fade or become dim even under the clouds of objections that men are prone to rouse against anything, and, above all, any purpose that they themselves cannot understand. Columbus is said to have been one of those mortals who are actually urged on by obstacles and who cannot be made to back down from their purpose by rebuffs and refusals, or even by the disappointments after preliminary encouragement which are so much harder to bear. Columbus' steadfastness of character during the voyage, which enabled him to overcome the murmurings of his men and keep his ships to their course in spite of almost mutiny, is a reflex of this trait of his character, and yet there have been no end of obstinate men who have never succeeded in accomplishing anything worth while. Once engaged on the expedition, or in the preliminaries for it, Columbus' obstinacy of character in the better sense of that expression was simply invaluable, but the question is. How did he become engaged on the expedition at this time?
It takes only a little consideration of the history of the time in which Columbus was educated and the story of the accomplishment of the men who lived around him during the half century that preceded the discovery of America to realize exactly why the discovery was made at this particular time. There has probably never been a period when so many supremely great things were done or when so many men whose enduring accomplishment has influenced all the after generations were alive, as during the nearly seventy years of Columbus' lifetime. In order to illustrate, then, the background of the history of the discovery of America, it has seemed worth while to take what may be called Columbus' Century, from 1450 to 1550, and show what was accomplished during it. The discovery of America came just about the middle of it and represents one of a series of great achievements made by the men of the time which are destined never to lose in interest for mankind. To know the other great events and great men of the period is to appreciate better just what the discovery of America meant and the place that Columbus' work in this regard should have in the history of human accomplishment. The present volume can be at best only a very brief review of the great achievements and the story of the lives of the men of this time.
John Ruskin once said that the only proper way to know the true significance of a period of human history was to study the book of its arts, the book of its deeds and the book of its words, that is, to weigh the significance of its artistic accomplishment, the meaning of what its men did for their fellowmen and the worth of its literature in terms of world achievement. Judged by this standard, Columbus' Century must be placed among the greatest periods of human accomplishment in the world's history. It is the Renaissance period and, as everyone knows, this is a famous epoch in modern times. It has been a favorite study of a great many scholars in a great many generations since. It introduced many of the ideas, indeed most of the important thoughts and inventions on which our modern progress is founded. It is true that its great impetus came from the impulse given by the reintroduction of Greek ideas and Greek ideals into the modern world, but only that [{xxviii}] there were men of talent and genius, capable of being stirred to achievement by Greek incentive, nothing great would have been accomplished. Besides, while it owes much to Greece, it is great in its own right, and its men added much to what came to them out of Greece and adopted and adapted classic ideas and ideals so as to make them of great significance in the modern world.