8×1080or8×15120or8×20=160&c.
220230240

If you have either couple of these wheels, you can put one on the leading screw, and another on the mandrel, and fill up the intermediate space with dummies.

If the above is inconvenient, or the wheels are not to hand exactly as required, proceed thus. If you have the wheel for the mandrel, and the one you wish to use for the leading screw has only half the proper amount of teeth, it is evident that the leading screw would revolve twice as fast as required, for they are proportioned as two to one—or if I have the proper wheel for the leading screw, and the wheel I wish to use for the mandrel has twice the proper number of teeth, it amounts to the same thing. You can get over the difficulty by using any two wheels which are in the proportion of two to one (say 20 and 40, 30 and 60, 40 and 80, &c.), and coupling the two firmly together, so that the larger wheel of the two works into the mandrel wheel (or dummy working into the mandrel wheel) and the smallest into the screw wheel (or its dummy); if the speed is wrong in the contrary way, so that the case is reversed, the coupled wheels are made to gear in a reversed direction; and whatever may be the amount of error, whether such as to cause either mandrel or screw to revolve ⅛, ¼, or ¾ too slow or too fast, the same arrangement may be pursued, the coupled wheels bearing that proportion to each other. The above method was communicated to the English Mechanic by a working man, James Connor, and is perhaps as easy as any; but tables are published of change wheels for any pitch, with any thread of leading screw. Where it is not possible or inconvenient to apply the above arrangement, and where only a few pitches are likely to be needed, another method can be arranged by connecting the lathe pulley to the overhead motion and thence to the screw of the rest. Such an arrangement is shown in [Fig. 158]. A is the fly wheel, B mandrel pulley, C, D, pulleys on the overhead, E pulley and screw of the slide rest. To facilitate calculation, let diameter of C equal that of the part of the mandrel pulley that drives it, by which it will revolve in the same time. The calculation of the sizes of pulleys, D and E, will be the same as for the cogwheels of the screw-cutting lathe, circumference and number of cogs being, so far as calculation is concerned, the same thing. Let the leading screw have eight threads to the inch, and let it be required to cut a spiral of two threads to the inch. Proceed as before by dividing the required number of threads to be cut by the number on the leading screw 2-8 = ·25. The pulley on the leading screw will be therefore one quarter the size of that on the overhead (which is virtually that on the mandrel as it revolves at an equal speed with the latter). The overhead pulley may be conveniently twelve inches diameter, and that on the screw three inches. While the mandrel makes one revolution the screw will make four, advancing the tool half an inch, and cutting one thread of a spiral in that distance. The next revolution will advance the cutter a second half inch, cutting a second complete thread of spiral. Two threads will, therefore, have been cut in the space of one inch as desired. By the above method short screws and spirals of divers pitches may be cut at pleasure. The practical difficulty in this plan is due regulation of the various speeds.

Fig. 158.

We here introduce a modification of self-acting lathe for cutting Elizabethan twist described by Mr. Wilcox in his MS. before alluded to. The work is here done by a leading screw and toothed gearing, the principle being that of the ordinary machine lathe. A chuck, A, with cogwheel attached holds the work as usual, the back centre being also required. The cogwheel gears with one of less diameter attached to the end of the guide-screw B. On the latter works the rest C, in which is a nut of the same thread as that on the guide screw, and which holds the tool in a notch or hollow upon its upper part. The tool is then used by hand, but is guided in its course along the surface of the work to be turned. This guide screw, with the rest and cogwheel, is mounted on a board as a separate piece of apparatus, and is, when used, clamped on the lathe bed. As the rest is after all little else than a large nut, it must be prevented from turning round, and must be arranged to bear the pressure of the tool, relieving the long screw from the strain that would be thus caused. This is effected by a long flat bar—like the rest of a chair maker's lathe—extending the full length of the bed shown here at E, and supported by standards F, F. A projecting part of the rest bears upon this, and slides along it with the tool. The work is begun with the rest on the right hand, and some care is necessary as it nears the cogwheel on the left, when the work must be stopped and the whole run back by hand to its starting-place. This is one chief defect in this apparatus, for the rest very quickly traverses the length of the screw, and great delay is caused by having thus constantly to stop the lathe and reverse the motion. The closest attention is also necessary to prevent the rest from overrunning its mark and striking the cogwheel. It is evident that by using different pitches of cogwheels, many screws of varied threads can be cut in the above lathe. There is, however, another defect in the above tool not noticed by the writer of the MS. from which the description is taken, namely, the difficulty (common to all such contrivances for turning wood), of obtaining the requisite speed. If the work is put in rapid motion, without which wood will not be cut clean, the movement of the rest will be so rapid also, from the effect of the multiplying wheel, that the tool will be carried from end to end in a few seconds. We will therefore proceed to describe a modification of this and similar apparatus, which allows the tool a slow traverse lengthwise of the work, but gives it immense rapidity in the necessary direction. The following is applicable to the lathe described above, to the ordinary slide rest worked by hand, or to the large self-acting screw-cutting lathes used in manufactories, and is specially adapted for cutting spirals or other patterns in wood. In the [Fig. 160], A represents a shank, which may be made of any shape to fit particular patterns of tool holder. This shank is turned up and becomes a cylinder at B, like that of the ordinary revolving cutter. This part is bored, and fitted with a steel spindle, which should be of strength proportionate to the size of stuff likely to be operated on. One end of the spindle is fitted with a brass pulley, from which a cord is to be attached to the overhead apparatus, the other end terminates in a round or hexagonal boss, D, round the margin of which are securely held, by means of bridles B1 or other simple contrivance, a pair or more of small sharp gouges. This apparatus is put in the tool holder of the slide rest, set to the angle that corresponds with that of the screw or twist, and put in rapid revolution by means of the overhead apparatus. The whole rest, or merely the upper part, is then put in motion by one of the before-named means, and the tool advanced to make a cut. However slow the movement of the rest may be, the cutters move with such velocity as to make clean and beautiful work.[13] This may be applied to the slide-rest of the twist lathe, just described, or any similar apparatus. In the overhead, a roller, supplying the place of the second pulley, as described in a previous page, will allow the second cord sufficient power of traverse to keep up a proper position in reference to the pulley C. Revolving cutters on the same principle as the above, have of late years come into extensive use in wood-cutting and carving machinery. The steam planes now used in the preparation of flooring boards, the spoke turning lathe, moulding and shaping machines for wood are all thus fitted. The gouges or other cutters used must not be placed radially, but as tangents to the circumference of the boss in which they are fixed. An improvement upon the simple bridle to hold the cutters would be the substitution of Babbage's tool holder, four radial arms being substituted for the metal boss above alluded to. This tool is described and figured in Holtzapffel's "Mechanical Manipulation," to which the reader is referred for an accurate description. It chiefly consists of a shank turned up at the end like [Fig. 161], the outside, at B, being rounded to fit hollow gouges such as [Fig. 161H]; against this the hollow of the gouge is laid, and opposite to it, at C, a small piece like D. A band or hoop, E, is now placed over both the above, and between the two a wedge-shaped piece, F, which is intended to bring a strain upon the hoop and tighten it round the gouge. This last piece is attached to the shank or holder by a screw passing through it into the shank. The tighter this screw is worked the lower the central wedge is drawn down, and the tighter the hoop is made to embrace the tool. This holder is also modified to suit flat chisels. The tool cannot possibly slip, but can be released in a few seconds if desired. Such a termination of two, three, or four arms revolving on a spindle in place of the boss would form the best possible circular cutter for shaping lathes. The above lathe for producing Elizabethan twist introduces the reader to self-acting, screw-cutting, and machine lathes, such as are used in all large manufactories. Hand-turning, indeed, except in such light work as turning up the heads of small bolts, and finishing up work which, from peculiarities of form, cannot easily be done by self-acting tools, has become a thing of the past in factories of any pretensions; hand labour, in fact, not only no longer pays, but is quite insufficient to meet the requirements of the present age. Take, for example, a piston-rod requiring to be as "true as a hair," to use a common expression, from end to end. The traverse of an ordinary slide-rest would only enable us to turn a short length at a time, and the result, when accomplished, would not be satisfactory. With a self-acting lathe the tool traverses in a perfectly straight line from end to end, is returned to its starting-point by a quick traverse, and the movement repeated until the proper dimensions are attained. The process is not absolutely rapid, because time is requisite in cutting iron and steel, but the work is executed as speedily as the nature of the metal to be cut will allow, and the execution is perfect. Of late, however, even the above has been improved upon, for two cutters are used at once—one on each side of the bar, so that by one traverse of the rest a cut of double depth is taken, and the tendency of the work to spring away from one tool is counteracted by the operation of the other. But we require something more than speed in the present day. We must have work of absolute truth of measurement. What would our ancestors, or the immortal Watt himself, think of measuring work to the hundredth part of an inch, yet it can be and is done to the thousandth part. I believe I am correct in saying that Whitworth constantly gauges work to that or even a higher degree of nicety. It is not too much to assert that the best engines of the present day really work with the precision of clockwork, and even the bore of an Armstrong or Whitworth gun is executed with no less accuracy and precision. Look again at that ponderous affair, the steam hammer, so ponderous as to require a depth of solid masonry and timbers to sustain the force of its terrific blows. In a few minutes a solid mass of metal is reduced to a flat plate such as would have taken the united strength of a dozen men wielding the heaviest sledge-hammers for an hour at least. The ground beneath the feet of the spectator trembles at every blow of the machine. The work is done, and behold! with a touch the same ponderous concern becomes a nutcracker, not even injuring the kernel when it breaks the shell. Such is one of a hundred specimens of accurate workmanship carrying out in practice the clever designs of the mechanical engineer. Sweep away self-acting machinery, and such work would become a simple impossibility. Again, so long as turning, boring, planing, and such work was performed by hand alone (even after the introduction of the slide principle), an attendant was required at each machine. Now that the latter is contrived to regulate its own movements, one man at two or three lathes is sufficient. Thus the same article that was once imperfect and costly, owing to the demand on skilled labour, which was difficult to procure and at best inefficient when procured, has now become cheap, and to all intents and purposes perfect; and although the demand for such work increases year by year, self-acting machinery being constantly improved and simplified, enables the manufacturer to keep pace with the demand.

[13] The spiral chuck for fine work in ivory and costly woods is described in a later page.

Fig. 159.