APPENDIX V.
ARAB REFERENCES.[1]
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. Arab References, a.d. 851–1350.The earliest Arab reference to Gujarát is by the merchant Sulaimán[2] a.d. 851 (a.h. 237). Other Arab accounts follow up to a.d. 1263, a period of over four centuries. Sulaimán describes Jurz or Gujarát as bordering on the kingdom of the Balhára (a.d. 743–974) and as forming a tongue of land, rich in horses and camels and said to have “mines of gold and silver, exchanges being carried on by means of these metals in dust.”
Al Biláduri[3] (a.d. 892) states that the first Islámic expedition to India was the one despatched against Táná[4] (Thána) by Usmán, son of Al-Ási the Thakafi, who in the fifteenth year of the Hijrah (a.d. 636) was appointed governor of Bahrein and Umán (the Persian Gulf) by the second Khalífah Umar, the son of Khattáb. On the return of the expedition, in reply to his governor’s despatch, the Khalífah Umar is said to have written:[5] “Oh brother of Thakíf, thou hast placed the worm in the wood, but by Alláh, had any of my men been slain, I would have taken an equal number from thy tribe.” In spite of this threat Usmán’s brother Hakam, who was deputed by the governor to the charge of Bahrein, despatched a force to Bárúz[6] (Broach). Al Biláduri does not record the result of this expedition, but
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. mentions a more successful one to Debal at the mouth of the Indus sent by Hakam under the command of his brother Mughaira. On the death of his uncle Al-Hajjáj (a.d. 714; H. 95) Muhammad the son of Kásim the Arab conqueror of Sindh, is said to have made peace with the inhabitants of Surast or Káthiáváḍ with whom he states the people of Bátia[7] that is Bet to the north of Dwárka were then at war. Al Biláduri describes the Bátia men as Meds seafarers and pirates. In the reign of Hishám (a.d. 724) Junnaid, son of Abdur Rahmán Al Murri, who was appointed to the frontier of Sindh is stated to have conquered Jurz (Gujarát) and Bárús (Broach).[8] A more permanent result followed a great expedition from Mansúrah in Sindh. This result was the overthrow, from which it never recovered, of the great seaport and capital of Vala or Valabhi.[9] Al Biláduri’s next mention[10] of Gujarát is in connection with the conquest of Sindán in Kachh and the founding there of a Jámá mosque by Fazl, son of Mahán in the reign of the Abbási Khalífah Al Mámún (a.d. 813–833) the son of the famous Hárún-ur-Rashíd. After Fazl’s death his son Muhammad sailed with sixty vessels against the Meds of Hind, captured Máli[11] apparently Mália in north Káthiáváḍ after a great slaughter of the Meds and returned to Sindán.
The dissension between Muhammad and his brother Mahán, who in Muhammad’s absence had usurped his authority at Sindán, re-established the power of the Hindus. The Hindus however, adds Al Biláduri, spared the assembly mosque in which for long the Musalmáns used to offer their Friday prayers.[12] Ibni Khurdádbah (a.d. 912; H. 300) erroneously enumerates Bárúh and Sindán (Broach and Sindán) as cities of Sindh.[13] The king of Juzr he describes as the fourth Indian sovereign. According to Al Masúdi[14] (a.d. 915) the country of the Balháras or Ráshṭrakúṭas (a.d. 743–974), which is also called the country of Kumkar (Konkan), is open on one side to the attacks of the king of Juzr (Gujarát) a prince owning many horses and camels and troops who does not think any king on earth equal to him except the king of Bábal (Babylon). He prides himself and holds himself high above all other kings and owns many elephants, but hates Musalmáns. His country is on a tongue of land, and there are gold and silver mines in it, in which trade is carried on. Al Istakhri[15] (H. 340; a.d. 951) gives an itinerary in which he shows the distance between
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. Mansúrah and Kámhal[16] (Anhilwára) to be eight days’ journey; from Kámhal to Kambáya (Cambay) four days; from Kambáya to the sea about two farasangs that is between seven and eight miles[17]; from Kambáya to Surabáya[18] perhaps Surabára the Surat river mouth which is half a farasang (between 1½ and two miles) from the sea, about four days. He places five days between Surabáya (Surat) and Sindán (St. John near Daman) and a like distance between Sindán and Saimúr (Chewal or Cheul) thirty miles south of Bombay. Ibni Haukal[19] (H. 366; a.d. 976) enumerates[20] (Fámhal)[21] (Anhilwára), Kambáya (Cambay), Surbáráh (Surat), Sindán (Daman), and Saimúr (Cheul) as cities of Al Hind (India), as opposed to As Sindh or the Indus valley. From Kambáya to Saimúr, he writes, is the land of the Balhára, which is in the possession of several kings.[22] Ibni Haukal describes the land between Kámhal (Anhilwára) and Kambáya (Cambay), and Bánia three days’ journey from Mansúrah as desert,[23] and between Kambáya and Saimúr as thickly covered with villages. Al Bírúni,[24] in his famous Indica about a.d. 1030–31 writes: From Kanauj, travelling south-west you come to Ási, a distance of eighteen farsakhs[25] that is of seventy two miles; to Sahiva 17 farsakhs or sixty-eight miles; to Chandra 18 farsakhs or seventy-two miles; to Rajauri fifteen farsakhs or sixty miles; and to Nárána (near Jaipur) the former capital of Gujarát, 18 farsakhs or seventy-two miles. Nárána he adds was destroyed and the capital transferred to another town on the frontier. From Nárána at a distance of 60 farsakhs or 240 miles south-west lies Anhilwára, and thence to Somnáth on the sea is fifty farsakhs or 200 miles. From Anhilwára, passing south is Lárdes with its capitals Bihruch (Broach) and Rahánjur[26] (Rándir) forty-two farsakhs (168
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. miles). These he states are on the shore of the sea to the east of Tána (the modern Thána).[27] After describing the coast of Makrán till it reaches Debal[28] (Karáchi or Thatta) Abu Rihán comes to the coast of Kachh[29] and Somnáth, the population of which he calls the Bawárij because, he says, they commit their piratical depredations in boats called Baira.[30] He gives the distance[31] between Debal (Karáchi or Thatta) and Kachh the country that yields mukl (gum or myrrh)[32] and bádrúd (balm) as six farsakhs (24 miles); to Somnáth (from Debal) fourteen (56 miles); to Kambáya thirty (120 miles); to Asáwal the site of Ahmedábád (from Cambay) two days’ journey; to Bahrúj (Broach) (from Debal)[33] thirty, to Sindán or St. John (from Debal) fifty; to Subára (Sopára) from Sindán six[34]; to Tána (from Sopára) five. Rashíd-ud-dín in his translation (a.d. 1310) of Al Bírúni (a.d. 970–1031) states[35] that beyond Gujarát are Konkan and Tána. He calls Tánah the chief town of the Konkans and mentions the forest of the Dángs as the habitat of the sharva an animal resembling the buffalo, but larger than a rhinoceros, with a small trunk and two big horns with which it attacks and destroys the elephant. Al Idrísi,[36] writing about the end of the eleventh century but with tenth century materials, places[37] in the seventh section of the second climate, the Gujarát towns of Mámhal (Anhilwára), Kambáya (Cambay), Subára (apparently Surabára or Surat), Sindán[38] (Sanján in Thána), and Saimúr (Chewal or Cheul). He adds, probably quoting from Al Jauhari (a.d. 950), that Nahrwára is governed by a great prince who bears the title of Balhára who owns the whole country from Nahrwára to Saimúr. He ranks the king of Juzr fourth among Indian potentates. The country from Debal to Kambáya (Karáchi to Cambay) he describes[39] as “nothing but a marine strand without habitations and almost without water, and impassable for travellers.”[40] The situation of Mámhal (Anhilwára) he gives as between Sindh and Hind. He notices the Meds as Mánds[41] grazing their flocks to within a short distance of
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. Mámhal (Anhilwára). He speaks of Mámhal, Kambáya, Subára (probably Surabára or Surat), Sindán, and Saimúr as countries of Hind (India) touching upon Sindh.[42] He describes Mámhal as a frontier town, numbered by some among the cities of Sindh, and he classifies Aubkin, Mánd, Kulámmali (Quilon),[43] and Sindán (Sandhán in Kachh) as maritime islands. Among the numerous towns of India are Mámhal (Anhilwára),[44] Kambáya (Cambay), Subára, Asáwal (Ahmedábád), Janáwal (Chunvál), Sindán, Saimúr, Jandur[45] (Rándir), Sandur (apparently a repetition of Rándir), and Rumála (perhaps the south Panjáb).[46] He speaks of Kalbata, Augasht, Nahrwára (Anhilwára), and Lahawar (Lahori Bandar) as in the desert[47] of Kambáya. Of the three Subára (Surabára or Surat), Sindán (the Thána Sanján), and Saimúr (Cheul), he says Saimúr alone belongs to the Balhára, whose kingdom, he adds, is large, well-peopled, commercial, and fertile. Near Subára (apparently Surabára) he locates small islands which he styles Bára where, he adds, cocoanuts and the costus grow.[48] East of Sindán, due to a confusion between Sandhán in Kachh and Sanján in Thána, he places another island bearing the same name as the port and under the same government as the mainland, highly cultivated and producing the cocoa palm the bamboo and the cane. Five miles by sea from Kulámmali lies another island called Máli, an elevated plateau, but not hilly, and covered with vegetation. The mention of the pepper vine suggests that Al Idrísi has wandered to the Malabár Coast. In the eighth section of the second clime Al Idrísi places Bárúh (Broach), Sandápúr (apparently Goa), Tána (Thána), Kandárina (Gandhár, north of Broach), Jirbátan a town mentioned by Al Idrísi as the nearest in a voyage from Ceylon to the continent of India on that continent. It is described as a populous town on a river supplying rice and grain to Ceylon,[49] Kalkáyan, Luluwa, Kanja, and Samandirún, and in the interior Dulaka (Dholka), Janwál (Chunvál or Viramgám), and Nahrwár (Anhilwára).[50] Opposite the sea-port of Bárúh (Broach), Al Idrísi places an island called Mullán, producing large quantities of pepper. Al Idrísi describes the port of Bárúh (Broach) as accessible to ships from China and Sindh. The distance from Bárúh to Saimúr he puts at two days journey, and that between Bárúh and Nahrwára (Anhilwára) at eight days through a flat country travelled over in wheeled carriages drawn by oxen, which he adds furnished the only mode for the conveyance also of merchandise. He locates the towns of Dulaka and Hanawal
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. or Janáwal (Chunwál or Jháláwár) with Asáwal (Ahmedábád) between Bárúh and Nahrwára. He represents all three of these towns to be centres of a considerable trade, and among their products mentions the bamboo and the cocoanut. From Bárúh to Sandábúr (that is, Goa), a commercial town with fine houses and rich bazárs situated on a great gulf where ships cast anchor, the distance along the coast given by Al Idrísi is four days. Al Kazwíni[51] writing about the middle of the thirteenth century a.d. 1263–1275, but mainly from information of the tenth century notes Saimúr (Cheul) “a city of Hind near the confines of Sindh” with its handsome people of Turkish extraction worshippers of fire having their own fire-temples. Al Kazwíni (a.d. 1230) dwells at length on the wonders of Somnáth and its temple. He calls it a celebrated city of India situated on the shore of the sea and washed by its waves. Among its wonders is Somnáth, an idol hung in space resting on nothing. In Somnáth he says Hindus assemble by the ten thousand at lunar eclipses, believing that the souls of men meet there after separation from the body and that at the will of the idol they are re-born into other animals. The two centuries since its destruction by the idol-breaker of Ghaznah had restored Somnáth to its ancient prosperity. He concludes his account of Somnáth by telling how Mahmúd ascertained that the chief idol was of iron and its canopy a loadstone and how by removing one of the walls the idol fell to the ground.
Rivers.Regarding the rivers and streams of Gujarát the Arab writers are almost completely silent. The first reference to rivers is in Al Masúdi (a.d. 944) who in an oddly puzzled passage says:[52] “On the Lárwi Sea (Cambay and Cheul) great rivers run from the south whilst all the rivers of the world except the Nile of the Egypt, the Mehrán (Indus) of Sindh, and a few others flow from the north.” Al Bírúni a.d. 970–1030) states that between the drainage areas of the Sarsut and the Ganges is the valley of the river Narmaza[53] which comes from the eastern mountains and flows south-west till it falls into the sea near Bahrúch about 180 miles (60 yojanas) east of Somnáth. Another river the Sarsut (Sarasvatí) he rightly describes as falling into the sea an arrowshot to the east of Somnáth.[54] He further mentions the Tábi (Tápti) from the Vindu or Vindhya hills and the Támbra Barani or copper-coloured, apparently also the Tápti, as coming from Málwa. In addition he refers to the Máhindri or Máhi and the Sarusa apparently
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350. Sarasvatí perhaps meant for the Sábarmati. Al Idrísi (a.d. 1100) is the only other Arab writer who names any of the Gujarát rivers. As usual he is confused, describing Dulka (Dholka) as standing on the bank of a river flowing into the sea which forms an estuary or gulf on the east of which stands the town of Bárúh (Broach).[55]
The Arab writers record the following details of twenty-two leading towns:
Towns.
Anahalváda.Anahalváda (Ámhal, Fámhal, Kámhal, Kámuhul, Mámhul, Nahlwára, Nahrwála). Al Istakhri (H. 340; a.d. 951) mentions Ámhal Fámhal and Kámhal, Ibni Haukal (a.d. 976) Fámhal Kámhal and Kámuhal, and Al Idrísi (end of the eleventh century) Mámhul. That these are perversions of one name and that this town stood on the border of ‘Hind’ or Gujarát (in contradistinction to Sindh) the position given to each by the Arab geographers[56] places beyond question. Al Istakhri (a.d. 951) alone calls the place by the name of Ámhal which he mentions[57] as one of the chief cities of ‘Hind.’ Later he gives the name of Fámhal to a place forming the northern border of “Hind”, as all beyond it as far as Makrán belongs to Sindh. Again a little later[58] he describes Kámhal as a town eight days from Mansúrah and four days from Kambáya, thus making Kámhal the first Gujarát town on the road from Mansúrah about seventy miles north of Haidarábád in Sindh to Gujarát. Ibni Haukal (a.d. 968–976) in his Ashkál-ul-Bilád gives Fámhal in his text and Kámhal in his map[59] and again while referring[60] to the desert between Makrán and Fámhal as the home of the Meds, he styles it Kámhal. Once more he refers to Fámhal as a strong and great city, containing a Jámá or Assembly Mosque; a little later[61] he calls it Kámuhul and places it eight days from Mansúrah and four from Kambáya. He afterwards contradicts himself by making Mansúrah two days’ journey from ‘Kámuhul,’ but this is an obvious error.[62] Al Bírúni (a.d. 970–1039) notices Anhilwára and does not recognize any other form.[63] Al Idrísi (end of the eleventh century) adopts no form but Mámhal referring to it as one of the towns of the second climate[64] on the confines of a desert between Sindh and “Hind” (India or Gujarát) the home of the sheep-grazing and horse and camel-breeding Meds,[65] as a place numbered by some among the cities of Hind (Gujarát) by others as one of the cities of Sindh situated at the extremity of the desert which stretches between Kambáya, Debal, and Bánia.[66] Again he describes Mámhal as a town of moderate importance on the route “from Sindh to India,” a place of little trade, producing small quantities of fruit but numerous flocks, nine days from Mansúrah through Bánia and five from Kambáya.[67] Al Idrísi (quoting from tenth century
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350.
Towns.
Anahalváda. materials) also notices Nahrwára as eight days’ journey from Bárúh (Broach) across a flat country a place governed by a prince having the title of the Balhára, a prince with numerous troops and elephants, a place frequented by large numbers of Musalmáns who go there on business.[68] It is remarkable that though Vanarája (a.d. 720–780?) founded Anhilwára as early as about a.d. 750 no Arab geographer refers to the capital under any of the many forms into which its name was twisted before Al Istakhri in a.d. 951. At first Anhilwára may have been a small place but before the tenth century it ought to have been large enough to attract the notice of Ibni Khurdádbah (a.d. 912) and Al Masúdi (a.d. 915). In the eleventh century the Musalmán historians of Mahmúd’s reign are profuse in their references to Anhilwára. According to Farishtah[69] after the capture of Anhilwára and the destruction of Somnáth (H. 414; a.d. 1025) Mahmúd was anxious to make Anhilwára his capital especially as it had mines of gold and as Singaldip (Ceylon) rich in rubies was one of its dependencies. Mahmúd was dissuaded from the project by his ministers.[70] But two mosques in the town of Pattan remain to show Mahmúd’s fondness for the city. The next Muhammadan reference to Anhilwára is by Núr-ud-dín Muhammad Úfi, who lived in the reign of Shams-ud-dín Altamsh (a.d. 1211).[71] In his Romance of History Úfi refers to Anhilwára as the capital of that Jai Ráj, who on receiving the complaint of a poor Musalmán preacher of Cambay, whose mosque the Hindus instigated the fire-worshippers of the place to destroy, left the capital alone on a fleet dromedary and returning after personal enquiry at Cambay summoned the complainant and ordered the chief men of the infidels to be punished and the Musalmán mosque to be rebuilt at their expense.[72]
The Jámi-ûl-Hikáyát of Muhammad Úfi alludes[73] to the defeat of Sultán Shaháb-ud-dín or Muhammad bin Sám, usually styled Muhammad Ghori, at the hands of Múlarája II. of Aṇahilaváḍa in a.d. 1178. And the Tájul Maásir[74] describes how in a.d. 1297 the Musalmáns under Kutb-ud-dín Aibak retrieved the honour of their arms by the defeat of Karan and his flight from Anhilwára. This account refers to Gujarát as “a country full of rivers and a separate region of the world.” It also notices that Sultán Násir-ud-dín Kabáchah (a.d. 1246–1266) deputed his general Kháskhán from Debal to attack Nahrwála and that Kháskhán brought back many captives and much spoil. After the conquest of Gujarát, in a.d. 1300 Sultán Alá-ud-dín Khilji despatched Ulughkhán (that is the Great Khán commonly styled Alfkhán) to destroy the idol-temple of Somnáth. This was done and the largest idol was sent to Alá-ud-dín.[75]
Chief Towns.
Asáwal.Asáwal. Abú Rihán Al Bírúni is the first (a.d. 970–1039) of Arab geographers to mention Asáwal the site of Ahmedábád which he correctly
Appendix V.
Arab References, a.d. 851–1350.
Chief Towns.
Asáwal. places two days journey from Cambay.[76] The next notice is along with Khábirún (probably Kávi on the left mouth of the Máhi) and near Hanáwal or Janáwal, apparently Chunvál or Viramgám, by Al Idrísi (end of the eleventh century) as a town, populous, commercial, rich, industrious, and productive of useful articles.[77] He likens Asáwal “both in size and condition” to Dhulaka both being places of good trade.[78] In the early fourteenth century (a.d. 1325) Ziá-ud-dín Barni refers to Asáwal as the place where Sultán Muhammad Tughlak (a.d. 1325–1351) had to pass a month in the height of the rains owing to the evil condition to which his horses were reduced in marching and countermarching in pursuit of the rebel Tághi. In the beginning of the fifteenth century (a.d. 1403–4) the Tárikh-i-Mubárak Sháhi notices Asáwal as the place where Tátárkhán the son of Zafarkhán had basely seized and confined his own father.[79] The Mirát-i-Sikandari also speaks[80] of Asáwal (a.d. 1403) but with the more courtly remark that it was the place where Zafarkhán the grandfather of Sultán Ahmad the founder of Ahmedábád, retired into private life after placing his son Tátárkhán on the throne.[81] The Mirát-i-Sikandari states that Ahmedábád.the city of Ahmedábád was built[82] in the immediate vicinity of Asáwal. The present village of Asarwa is, under a slightly changed name, probably what remains of the old town.