The first operation of venesection, or blood-letting, formerly so promiscuously done, with at times good, but oftener disastrous, results, and now rarely resorted to, is attributed to Podalirius, of recognized Grecian medical skill, the patient being a princess.
The early Greeks above all recognized the value of physical culture, which to-day occupies a prominent place in our curriculum. Were the children of to-day, like those of the ancient Greeks, compelled to follow a routine of physical training, a rugged constitution would replace many a “delicate” and “infirm” one, and the race propagated would tend to develop a stronger character. Then the weak-minded, now so conspicuously present, would be eradicated, and many diseased conditions fostered by an “inanimate” race would disappear.
Hygeia, from whence comes Hygiene, or the art of preserving health, was a pretended sister of Æsculapius. Anatomy could not flourish in Greece, because a most exemplary punishment awaited any untoward conduct toward the dead. Their peculiar religious beliefs regarding the rest of the soul were responsible for this.
The knowledge of the functions of the body in health and disease was appreciated by Pythagoras. Diogenes asserts that Alcmæon, one of the Pythagoreans, wrote a work on the functions, which work would consequently be the most ancient known treatise on physiology.
The age of Hippocrates (B. C. 460–370) was marked by a revolution in medical science. “This central figure in the history of medicine” was descendant of a family in which the practice of medicine was hereditary. He was an extensive writer on such subjects as epidemics, acute diseases, dislocations, fractures, etc. Owing to the impossibility of establishing a physiology without an anatomical basis, his references to these subjects are crude and incorrect. To Hippocrates we owe the classification of endemic, sporadic, and epidemic forms of disease, and their division into acute and chronic. He wrote on diseases of women and epilepsy, and his therapeutics, though crude, were a marked improvement on what had preceded. He wrote fully on external diseases and surgical therapeutics. In obstetrics he was a close observer and a thoughtful teacher. The brilliant theories and practices so diligently observed and urged by this master were thrown in the shadow by his thoughtless followers. The well-instructed physician is not ignorant of the opinions of Hippocrates, for truly the “divine old man” is the “Father of Physic.” He caused a revolution in the practice of medicine, semeiology, pathology, and dietetics. He taught physicians to observe attentively the progress of Nature, proved the inutility of theories, and showed that observation is the basis of medicine.
An important age, and one of marked progress in medicine, is from the foundation of the Alexandrian Library (320 B. C.) up to the death of Galen (A. D. 200). Under the Ptolemies dissection of human bodies was allowed, and hence, as already stated, the science of medicine received quite an impulse. Herophilus deserves first mention as a dissector. He described the brain and its vessels, the eye, the intestinal canal, and parts of the vascular system. The valves of the heart were more exactly described by Erasistratus, who discovered the lymph vessels and pointed out that the epiglottis prevents the entrance of food into the lungs.
Aretæus, more than any other up to his time, attempted to found pathology upon a sound anatomic basis, an effort which shows the scientific progress of his age.
Of all the physicians of antiquity, Galen was probably the most brilliant genius. In the midst of disorder he led back to the safer road of sound doctrine and accurate observation which distinguished the Hippocratic school. He wrote extensively on anatomy, especially regarding the muscles. He was the first vivisector, by exposing the muscles of animals and demonstrating their functions, and his classification according to their use is at present in vogue. Carefully regulated vivisection has been, and always will be, of incalculable benefit to the development of accurate medical knowledge, and an indirect aid in the alleviation of human suffering. Galen divided the body into cranial and thoracic cavities, and described the organs, etc., contained therein. Anatomy and physiology, the fundamental bases of medicine and surgery, made the most progress during the period just reviewed, and next came the description of diseases, their medical and surgical therapeutics.
After the sixth century medicine was exercised almost exclusively by the monks of the West. They were unworthy the name of physicians, as they resorted more to prayers, and were retarded by ignorance and prejudice.
During the seventh and eighth centuries there were among the monks a few traditionary remains of science, originating from the East. The prelates, archdeacons, etc., though continuing the practice of the healing art, were gradually discouraged by the church, but as late as the middle of the fifteenth century the Bishop of Colchester was chaplain and first physician to Henry VI. In 1452 physicians of the University of Paris were not allowed to marry, the applicant, prior to admission, taking the oath of celibacy.