It only remains to consider very briefly the question of the supply of fleets operating in distant waters. In a very interesting and suggestive paper on the "Supply and Communications of a Fleet," Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge has pointed out that "in time of peace as well as in time of war there is a continuous consumption of the articles of various kinds used on board ship, viz., naval stores, ordnance stores, engineers' stores, victualling stores, coal, water, etc." Of these the consumption of victualling stores is alone constant, being determined by the number of men to be victualled from day to day. The consumption of nearly all the other stores will vary greatly according as the ship is more or less at sea, and it is safe to say that for a given number of ships the consumption will be much greater in time of war, especially in coal, engineers' stores, and ordnance stores, than it is in time of peace. But in peace conditions Admiral Bridge estimated that for a fleet consisting of four battleships, four large cruisers, four second-class cruisers, thirteen smaller vessels of various kinds, and three torpedo craft, together with their auxiliaries, the minimum requirements for six months—assuming that the ships started with full supplies, and that they returned to their principal base at the end of the period—would be about 6750 tons of stores and ammunition, and 46,000 tons of coal, without including fresh water. The requirements of water would not be less than 30,000 tons in the six months, and of this the ships could distil about half without greatly increasing their coal consumption; the remainder, some 15,000 or 16,000 tons, would have to be brought to them. In time of war the requirements of coal would probably be nearly three times as great as in time of peace, and the requirements of ammunition—estimated in time of peace at 1140 tons—might easily be ten times as great. Thus in addition to the foregoing figures we have 16,000 tons of water, and in war time a further minimum addition of some 90,000 tons of coal and 10,260 tons of ammunition, making in all a round total of 170,000 tons for a fleet of the size specified, which was approximately the strength of the China Fleet, under the command of Admiral Bridge, at the time when his paper was written.
All these supplies have to be delivered or obtained periodically and at convenient intervals in the course of every six months. They are supplies which the ships must obtain as often as they want them without necessarily going back to their principal base for the purpose, and even the principal base must obtain them periodically from the home sources of supply. There are two alternative ways of maintaining this continuous stream of supply. One is that in advance of the principal base, what is called a secondary base should be established from which the ships can obtain the stores required, a continuous stream of transports bringing the stores required to the secondary base from sources farther afield, either from the principal base or from the home sources of supply. The other method is to have no secondary base—which, since it contains indispensable stores, must be furnished with some measure of local defence, and which, as a place of storage, may turn out to be in quite the wrong place for the particular operations in hand—but to seize and occupy a "flying base," neither permanent nor designated beforehand, but selected for the occasion according to the exigencies of the strategic situation, and capable of being shifted at will in response to any change in those exigencies. History shows that the latter method has been something like the normal procedure in war alike in times past and in the present day. The alternative method is perhaps rather adapted to the convenience of peace conditions than to the exigencies of war requirements. During his watch on Toulon Nelson established a flying base at Maddalena Bay, in Sardinia, and very rarely used the more distant permanent base at Gibraltar. Togo, as I have stated in an earlier chapter, established a flying base first at the Elliot Islands and afterwards at Dalny, during the war in the Far East. Instances might easily be multiplied to show in which direction the experience of war points, and how far that direction has been deflected by the possibly deceptive teaching of peace. I shall not, however, presume to pronounce ex cathedrâ between two alternative methods each of which is sanctioned by high naval authority. I will only remark in conclusion that though the establishment of permanent secondary bases may, in certain exceptional cases, be defensible and even expedient, yet their multiplication, beyond such exceptional cases of proved and acknowledged expediency, is very greatly to be deprecated. The old rule applies—Entia non sunt præter necessitatem multiplicanda.
My task is now finished—I will not say completed, for the subject of naval warfare is far too vast to be exhausted within the narrow compass of a Manual. I should hardly exaggerate if I said that nearly every paragraph I have written might be expanded into a chapter, and every chapter into a volume, and that even so the subject would not be exhausted. All I have endeavoured to do is to expound briefly and in simple language the nature of naval warfare, its inherent limitations as an agency for subduing an enemy's will, the fundamental principles which underlie its methods, and the concrete problems which the application of those methods presents. Tactical questions I have not touched at all; strategic questions only incidentally, and so far as they were implicated in the discussion of methods. Political issues and questions of international policy I have eschewed as far as might be, and so far as it was necessary to deal with them I have endeavoured to do so in broad and abstract terms. Of the many shortcomings in my handling of the subject no one can be more conscious than I am myself. Yet I must anticipate one criticism which is not unlikely to be made, and that is that I have repeated and insisted on certain phrases and ideas such as "command of the sea," "control of maritime communications," "the fleet in being," "blockade," and the like, until they might almost be regarded as an obsession. Rightly or wrongly that has, at any rate, been done of deliberate intent. The phrases in question are in all men's mouths. The ideas they stand for are constantly misunderstood, misinterpreted, and misapplied. I hold that, rightly understood, they embody the whole philosophy of naval warfare. I have therefore lost no opportunity of insisting on them, knowing full well that it is only by frequent iteration that sound ideas can be implanted in minds not attuned to their reception.
INDEX
Aircraft, [121]
Alabama, the, [109]
Alexander, his conquest of Darius, [48]
Allemand, his escape from Rochefort, [66], [67]
Amiens, Peace of, [73]
Animus pugnandi, [46], [47], [48], [49], [55], [58], [59], [61], [78]
Antony, Mark, [72]
Armada, the, [79], [112]
Bacon, quoted, [6]
Baraille, De, his part in the Dunkirk campaign, [87], [88]
Barham, Lord, [18], [64];
and Nelson, [66], [67];
his conduct of the Trafalgar campaign, [118]
Base, flying, [142];
naval, [137]
Battle-cruiser, its functions, [122]-128
Beachy Head, Battle of, [32], [35];
campaign of, [70], [78]
Berlin Decrees, [100]
Bettesworth, [118]
Blockade, [17];
a form of disputed command, [20]-29;
military, its methods, [23];
military and commercial, [21]
Bolt from the blue, [80], [89]
Boscawen, at Lagos, [79]
Brest, [33], [35];
blockaded by Cornwallis, [30];
blockaded by Hawke, [79];
De Roquefeuil at, [81], [82]
Bridge, Admiral Sir Cyprian, on a fleet in being, [31];
on supply and communications of a fleet, [140];
his estimate of Torrington, [32], [40];
on Torrington's trial, [42]
Brundusium, Cæsar at, [72]
Cadiz, Killigrew at, [34]
Cæsar, his Pharsalian campaign, [71], [72]
Calais, the Armada at, [79]
Calder, his action off Finisterre, [118];
Barham's instructions to, [64]
Camperdown, Duncan at, [126]
Cape St Vincent, meeting of Nelson with Craig and Knight off, [65]
Capital ships, [113]
Carthagena, Spanish ships at, [66]
Charles, Prince, [82]
Château-Renault, [33], [35]
Clausewitz, his definition of war, [4];
on limited and unlimited war, [5], [22]
Colomb, Admiral, on differentiation of naval force, [114];
on Torrington's strategy, [40], [43], [79]
Command of the sea, [6], [10], [11]-19, [20], [21], [50], [52], [54], [71], [94], [98], [121], [133], [134], [135];
its true meaning, [15], [135];
no meaning except in war, [15], [135]
Command of the sea, disputed, in general, [49]-67
Commerce, maritime, extent of British, [53];
in war, [93]-110;
its modern conditions, [101]-110
Concentration of naval force, its conditions, [132]
Conflans, at Brest, [79]
Corbett, Mr Julian, [62], [67];
on the Dunkirk campaign, [89];
on commerce in war, [105];
on Craig's expedition, [61], [66];
on projects of invasion, [77];
on the Trafalgar campaign, [118]
Cornwallis, and the blockade of Brest, [18], [30]
Craft, small, [57], [76]
Craig, his expedition to the Mediterranean, [61]-67
Cuba, its deliverance by the United States, [54]
Dalny, Togo at, [26], [143]
Dettingen, [80]
Downs, the, Norris ordered to, [85]
Duncan, at Camperdown, [126]
Dungeness, Roquefeuil anchors at, [87];
Norris at, [88];
Norris and Roquefeuil at, [89]
Dunkirk, troops collected at, [81];
embargo at, [83];
Saxe and Baraille at, [88]
Egypt, Napoleon's descent on, [73]
Elliott Islands, Togo at, [26], [143]
Embargo, at Dunkirk, [83]
Farragut, [7]
Fleets, and base, their true relation, [138]
Fleet in being, phrase first used by Torrington, [42];
defined, [45], [58];
a form of disputed command, [30]-48
Fleets, supply of, [140]
Food Supply, Royal Commission on, [99]
Fortress fleet, [48], [58];
Admiral Mahan on, [47], [55]
Ganteaume, at Brest, [31]
General chase, [125]
General Staff, the, [117]
Germany, Navy Law of 1900, [130]
Goschen, Lord, quoted, [124]
Gravelines, [79], [87]
Gunfleet, the, [37], [40], [44]
Hague Conference, [102]
Hannay, Mr David, [100]
Hannibal, his passage of the Alps, [61]
Hardy, Nelson's, on big ships, [124]
Hawke, [32];
blockades Brest [79];
at Quiberon Bay, [126]
Hornby, Sir Geoffrey, on the command of the sea, [45]
Invasion, [51], [68]-92;
dilemma of, [70]
Invasion over sea, three ways of, [75]
James II., [32]
Justin of Nassau, and the Armada, [79]
Killigrew, Vice-Admiral, [34], [37], [39], [40], [44], [78];
his expedition to Cadiz, [34];
his return to Plymouth, [35].
Knight, Rear-Admiral, escorts Craig, [65]
Lagos, Boscawen and De La Clue at, [79]
Lepanto, Battle of, [112]
Line of battle, the, [113]
Lisbon, Craig and Knight at, [65]
Lissa, Battle of, [8]
Louis XIV., [33]
Maddalena Bay, Nelson's base at, [143]
Mahan, Admiral, on commerce at sea, [98], [99];
on a fleet in being, [31], [43];
on a fortress fleet, [47], [55];
on Hannibal's passage of the Alps, [61];
on Nelson, [48], [123];
on territorial expansion, [52]
Maida, Battle of, [66]
Makaroff, Admiral, [47], [59]
Manchuria, 59;
Japanese successes in, [55]
Maria Theresa, [80]
Mary, Queen, her orders to Torrington, [40], [44]
Mathews, his action off Toulon, [80];
in the Mediterranean, [83], [84]
Medina Sidonia, and the Armada, [79]
Mediterranean, the, England's position in, [136], [137]
Merchant vessels, conversion of into warships at sea, [101]-104
Morbihan, the, troops collected in, [79]
Napoleon, [30], 31; and the campaign of Trafalgar, [18], [19];
his descent on Egypt, [61], [73];
his ignorance of the sea, [74]
Naval force, differentiation of, [111]-128;
distribution and supply of, [129]-145
Naval strength, measure of, [129]
Naval warfare, defined, [1];
special characteristic of, [56];
its limitations, [51];
philosophy of, [145];
its primary aim, [14]
Nelson, [18], [32], 46, [123];
his advanced squadron, [127];
and Barham, [66], [67];
his base at Maddalena Bay, [143];
on the blockade of Toulon, [22];
on Craig's expedition, [64];
evaded by Napoleon, [73];
evaded by Villeneuve, [63];
at Trafalgar, [60];
his Trafalgar Memorandum, [126];
his pursuit of Villeneuve, [37], [38]
Newcastle, Duke of, [83]
Nile, Battle of the, [74]
Norman Conquest, the, [68], [75]
Norris, Sir John, [83];
in the Downs, [87];
leaves the Downs, [88];
and Roquefeuil at Dungeness, [89];
at St Helen's, [85], [86]
North Sea, concentration in, [135]
Orde, Sir John, raises the blockade of Cadiz, [65]
Orders in Council, the British, [100]
Parma, Duke of, and the Armada, [79]
Peace strategy of position, [131], [132], [136]
Philippines, the, acquired by the United States, [52]
Pitt, [61], [62], [63], [67]
Plymouth, Killigrew at, [35]
Pompey, at Pharsalus, [71], [72]
Port Arthur, [27];
how blockaded by Togo, [26], [143];
its capture by Japan, [54], [55];
first Japanese attack on, [46];
Russian fleet at, [47], [58]
Pretender, the, [80]
Privateering, [99], [101]
Property, private, at sea, [95]-97
Puerto Rico, acquired by the United States, [52]
Quiberon Bay, Battle of, [79], [126]
Rochefort, Allemand escapes from, [66], [67]
Roquefeuil, De, at Brest, [81], [82];
anchors at Dungeness, [87];
puts to sea, [82];
and Norris at Dungeness, [89];
off the Start, [84], [86]
Rozhdestvensky, at Tsu-Shima, [60]
Sampson, Admiral, [46]
Santiago, [46];
its capture by the United States, [54]
Saxe, Marshal, at Dunkirk, [81];
with Baraille at Dunkirk, [88]
Sea, its characteristics, [13]
Sea power, [6], [10], [13], [52], [55]
Sea transport, [14]
Sebastopol, siege of, [6], [46]
Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, [33], [35], [39], [40], [44], [78]
Sovereignty of the Seas, [49], [50]
St Helen's, Norris at, [85], [86]
Start, the, De Roquefeuil off, [84], [86]
Submarine, the, [24], [120], [121]
Supply, of fleets, two alternative methods of, [142]
Syracuse, Athenian expedition to, [61]
Talavera, Battle of, [73]
Teignmouth, French raid on, [42]
Telegraphy, wireless, [26], [117]
Togo, Admiral, [59];
his method of blockading Port Arthur, [26], [143]
Torbay, Tourville's projected descent on, [33]
Torpedo craft, [24], [57], [69], [120]
Torpedo, the locomotive, [24]
Torrington, Arthur Herbert, Earl of, 34, [35], [36], [47], 78;
anchors at Beachy Head, [41];
Admiral Bridge on, [32], [40], [42];
Colomb on, [43];
on a fleet in being, [32], [42];
ordered to give battle, [44];
his strategy, [38], [39];
tried by Court Martial, [42];
warns Mary and her Council, [40]
Toulon, Château-Renault at, 33
Tourville, [33], [34], [43], [44], [48], [70], [78];
at Brest, [35];
in the Channel, [36]
Trade routes, [104]
Trafalgar, [63];
campaign of, [90], [91];
and Craig's expedition, [61];
its significance, [19]
Tsu-Shima, Battle of, its effects, [54], [55]
Utrecht, Treaty of, [82]
Villeneuve, pursued by Nelson, [37];
driven out of the West Indies, [38];
leaves Toulon, [63]
War, defined, [1];
its origin, [2];
its primary object, [4];
of American Independence, [99], [133];
Boer, [8], [56], [94];
civil, [1], [2];
Crimean, [6];
Cuban, [9], [46];
in the Far East, [9];
of 1859, [7];
of 1866, [7];
of 1870, [8], [54];
of Secession in America, [2], [7];
the Seven Years', [79]
Wars, the Dutch, [93], [113]
War Staff, [118], [119]
Wellington, [73];
his Peninsular Campaigns, [19]
William the Conqueror, [68]
William III., [32]
Wolseley, Lord, on communications, [73]
PRINTED BY
TURNBULL AND SPEARS,
EDINBURGH