[3] On the details of crucifixion there is an extremely interesting and learned excursus in Zöckler's Das Kreus Christi (Beilage III.). Cicero's Verrine Orations contain a good deal that is valuable to a student of the Passion, especially in regard to scourging and crucifixion. Crucifixion was an extremely common form of punishment in the ancient world; but "the cross of the God-Man has put an end to the punishment of the crow."
[4] Zöckler maintains that crucifixion, while the most shameful, was not absolutely the most painful form of death.
[5] The appreciation of the significance of the Cross has gone on in two lines—the Artistic and the Doctrinal—both of which arc followed out with varied learning in Zöckler's Kreus Christi.
The English reader may with great satisfaction trace the artistic development in Mrs. Jameson's History of our Lord as exemplified in Works of Art, where the following scheme is given of the varieties of treatment:—
"Symbolical, when the abstract personifications of the sun and moon, earth and ocean, are present.
"Sacrificially symbolical, when the Eucharistic cup is seen below the Cross, or the pelican feeding her young is placed above it.
"Simply doctrinal, when the Virgin and St. John stand on each side, as solemn witnesses; or our Lord is drinking the cup, sometimes literally so represented, given Him of the Father, while the lance opens the sacramental font.
"Historically ideal, as when the thieves are joined to the scene, and sorrowing angels throng the air.
"Historically devotional, as when the real features of the scene are preserved, and saints and devotees are introduced.
"Legendary, as when we see the Virgin fainting.