Government in the United States, National, State and Local

by James Wilford Garner

The Acts of 1792 and 1834.—As soon as the new government under the Constitution had gone into operation, steps were taken to provide a system of metallic currency. In 1792, an act was passed providing for the establishment of a mint at Philadelphia and for the striking of both gold and silver coins.[38] The gold coins were to be the double eagle, the eagle, the half eagle, and the quarter eagle; the silver coins were to be the dollar, the half dollar, the quarter, the dime, and the half dime.[39] As the market value of a given quantity of gold bullion was then about fifteen times that of silver, the weight of the silver coins was made fifteen times that of the corresponding gold coins. But as the value of gold bullion presently began to increase in comparison with silver, it was necessary to readjust the ratio so as to keep both in circulation, and so in 1834 the weight of gold coins was reduced and the ratio made sixteen to one.

Demonetization of the Silver Dollar.—But soon the increase in the supply of gold again disturbed the ratio, making the silver coins worth more as metal than as money; and as the difficulty of keeping up the adjustment seemed insuperable, Congress decided to abandon the attempt and so in 1873 the silver dollar was practically "demonetized," that is, was dropped from the list of coins, and other silver coins were made subsidiary, that is, their weight was decreased so that the metal in them was worth less than their face value, and they were made legal tender for small sums only.[40]

Later Acts.—The opposition to the demonetization of the silver dollar, however, became so great that it was restored by the act of 1878 and made full legal tender. But the free coinage of silver was not restored; the act required the government to purchase and coin not less than $2,000,000 nor more than $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion per month. In the mean time the market value of silver had declined until the amount of silver in a silver dollar was worth less than eighty cents in gold, and it was believed that the act of 1878 by increasing the demand for silver would restore its market value. This, however, did not happen, and the market value of silver went on decreasing until at one time the amount of silver in a dollar was worth only about forty-six cents in gold. In 1890 Congress increased the use of silver by requiring the secretary of the treasury to purchase monthly four and one half million ounces of silver and pay for it with treasury notes which were redeemable in coin at the option of the secretary and which were to be canceled or destroyed when so redeemed. This act was repealed in 1893, since which date the government has purchased very little silver bullion for coinage purposes.

Free Coinage.—In determining its coinage policy, the government might follow either of two methods: (1) It might coin any and all bullion presented by its owners at the mints, or (2) it might purchase its own bullion and coin only so much as the necessities of trade or other considerations might require. The former policy is that of free coinage; it is also unlimited coinage since it involves the coinage of all bullion offered, without limit. From the very first, the practice of the government in regard to gold has been that of free and unlimited coinage; that is, any owner of gold bullion may take it to a mint and have it coined without charge except for the cost of the alloy. Prior to 1873, the same policy was followed in regard to silver, thus maintaining in theory at least a bimetallic or double standard. In 1873, however, Congress abandoned the policy of free coinage of silver and adopted the single gold standard. From then until now the government has coined no silver bullion for private owners.

Paper Currency.—In addition to the metallic money described above there is a vast amount of paper currency in the United States. This currency may be classified under five different heads.

Greenbacks.—First, there are the $346,681,016 of old United States notes or "greenbacks," already described. They were issued during the Civil War, they bear no interest, and are redeemable in coin upon the demand of the holder. Since 1878 the practice of the government has been not to retire them as they are redeemed but to reissue them and keep them in circulation.

Gold and Silver Certificates.—Second, there is a large amount of currency in the form of gold and silver certificates. The law under which such currency is issued provides that any owner of gold or silver coin may deposit it in the treasury and receive in exchange an equivalent amount of certificates. They are more convenient to handle than coin, and are equally valuable for paying debts and purchasing commodities. On the 1st of July, 1921, the amount of gold certificates in circulation was $452,174,709; the amount of silver certificates, $201,534,213. These two forms of currency constitute one eighth of our entire stock of money in circulation.

Sherman Treasury Notes.—A third form of paper money is the so-called Sherman treasury notes issued in pursuance of the act of 1890 already described. On July 1, 1921, there were $1,576,184 of them in circulation. The law declares that they shall be redeemed in coin, that is, either gold or silver, at the option of the government. To prevent the threatened depletion of the gold reserve[41] and provide the necessary gold with which to redeem the increasing issues of Sherman treasury notes, bond issues aggregating $262,000,000 were issued during the years 1894 and 1895. By the act of 1900 the policy of maintaining a single gold standard was definitely adopted by Congress, and it was provided that greenback notes, Sherman treasury notes, and other securities of the government should be redeemable in gold.

National Bank Notes.—The fourth class of paper money is national bank currency. A national bank, unlike other banks, not only receives deposits and makes loans and performs the other functions of banks, but also issues notes which circulate as money. There are about 8,200 national banks in the United States, with an aggregate capital of more than $1,000,000,000 and with a total circulation of $729,550,513 of notes outstanding (July 1, 1921).

Federal Reserve Notes.—The federal reserve banks, established under the act of 1913, not only receive deposits and make loans to other banks, but also have power to issue federal reserve notes which circulate as money. The amount in circulation July 1, 1921, was $2,680,494,274. This constitutes by far the largest amount of paper money in existence.