There are many gases, the inspiration of which occasions death; some of these act simply by excluding oxygen, while others exert an absolutely deleterious action in consequence of the specific powers which they possess. It is exclusively to the first species that our attention is at present to be directed; the latter will constitute matter for future consideration, under the title of Aërial Poisons.
It is a fact too well established to require any discussion, that oxygen is the only principle which is capable of producing the necessary changes in the blood, during its transmission through the lungs; and that, accordingly, whenever atmospheric air is deprived of this principle, it is no longer capable of supporting life, and the animal immersed in it instantly dies. It is thus that death takes place from exposure to the fumes of charcoal[[47]], to those of lime-kilns, to the atmosphere of cellars, caverns, wells, and dungeons.[[48]]
The asphyxia from privies, drains, and common sewers, depends upon a different cause, and will be considered under the head of Sulphuretted Hydrogen, in the history of poisons.
The fatal effects of confined air in a small and crowded room, were fully exemplified in the year 1742, when twenty persons were crammed in a part of St. Martin’s round-house called the hole, during the night, several of whom died; the surgeons on that occasion gave it as their opinion, that when the doors and windows were shut, the place could not support twenty persons for three hours without danger of their lives. A trial took place at the Old Bailey in consequence; but we have not been more successful than Dr. Gordon Smith in our search for its report. The medical jurist would be called upon, on such an occasion, for his opinion as to the nature of the deteriorated air, the causes of its accumulation, and whether it was adequate to the production of the alleged effects; and possibly, whether the fatal consequences might not have been averted by judicious caution, or active exertion. The most awful exemplification of the fatal effects of confined air is, however, recorded in the interesting narrative of what happened to the English in the black hole at Calcutta; and which we shall briefly relate in this place; as it involves some physiological phenomena to which we shall hereafter have occasion to refer.
It was in the month of June, 1756, that the Viceroy of Bengal laid siege to Fort William, the English factory at Calcutta. Mr. Holwell, assisted by the factors and the garrison, defended this post with extreme bravery; but was at length obliged to surrender. There were at this time remaining in the fort, an hundred and forty-five men and one woman. The whole of this unfortunate company, many of whom were wounded, and several very dangerously, were shut up the same night in a small prison only eighteen feet square. This prison, which is now better known in England by the name of the black hole, was enclosed by strong walls, and had only two small windows at one end, secured by iron grates. In this confined situation, which allowed only a space of about eighteen square inches to each individual, the heat and want of fresh air soon excited the most horrible effects; the prisoners, in a state of despair, began by attempting to force open the door, but in this they were unsuccessful. Mr. Holwell, who was placed near one of the windows, was more at his ease than the rest, and was consequently more cool and tranquil; and he recommended his companions to be quiet and orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts. This advice produced some little calm, interrupted, however, by the groans of the wounded and the dying. The heat increased every moment. Mr. Holwell recommended them to strip off their cloaths, as a means of acquiring more space; this was accordingly done, but with no great relief; they attempted to improve this by fanning the air with their hats, but even this was too painful a task for men who were worn out by the fatigue of the siege, and the heat of this dungeon. Another of the company was for their kneeling down, that they might have more air. They all readily agreed to do this; and to rise together in order to avoid confusion. This was done several times, but every time the signal was given to rise, the number of those who had strength enough to obey it diminished. There were constantly some remaining on the floor, who were unable to get up, and these were trodden to death by the survivors. All this happened during the first hour of their imprisonment. At nine o’clock in the evening they began to complain of excessive thirst, and to renew their efforts to open the prison door, and to tempt the centinels to fire upon them. Some of those who were farthest from the window became at once furiously delirious. The cry for water was unanimous. The guards brought water, and Holwell and two of his wounded friends received it at the window in their hats, and were going to pass it on to the rest; but so eager and tumultuous were the efforts of the crowd to get at this water, that Holwell’s two friends were suffocated, the water was spilt, and Holwell saw himself surrounded with dead bodies, who had either been crushed to death, or died for want of fresh air.
Hitherto the commander and benefactor of these unfortunate people, had been treated with some degree of respect, but now all distinction began to be forgotten; the whole company eagerly threw themselves towards the windows, and seizing the iron bars, some of them got even upon his shoulders. He was so borne down by this enormous weight, as to be deprived of all power of motion; he implored the pity of those who were upon his head and his shoulders, and requested them to let him go and die at the bottom of the prison; this request was readily complied with, every one was desirous of succeeding to his place, and without much difficulty he reached the farther end of the dungeon. The third part of these unhappy people were already dead, and they who were still alive pressed so eagerly towards the windows, that Holwell found himself somewhat freer in his new station; but the air was so corrupted, that his breathing soon became extremely difficult and painful. Unable therefore to support this, he attempted once more to make his way to the windows; and leaning on a heap of dead bodies, he now resolved to wait patiently for death. In this situation he remained about ten minutes, and then he experienced such a pain of the breast, and so violent a palpitation of the heart, that he was obliged to make one more attempt towards getting a less fatal air. There were five rows of his companions between himself and the window; his despair carried him through four of these. The palpitation of his heart now began to abate, but he felt inexpressible thirst, and cried out for water; but the water seemed to increase instead of alleviating his thirst; he therefore resolved to drink no more, and rather chose to suck the moisture from his shirt, which seemed to afford him some relief. A young man quite naked, who stood before him, eagerly seized the sleeve of his shirt, and for some moments deprived him of this salutary refreshment. It was not yet midnight. The small number of those who were left, were transported to the greatest excess of rage and despair. They all called aloud for air, because the water that had been brought to them afforded no relief. Soon after this the noise suddenly ceased. The greater part who were living laid themselves down, deprived of all their strength, and peaceably breathed their last. Others aimed at getting into Holwell’s situation; a Dutchman mounted on one of his shoulders, and a black soldier on the other. In this situation he remained till two in the morning, when he gave up his place to a marine officer, who was soon forced out of it by the Dutchman. The officer retired with Holwell to the other corner of the prison, and in a few moments afterwards died. Holwell himself was soon deprived of sense, and from that time till sun rise we have no account of what passed. One of those who remained alive, at five in the morning, drew forth Holwell from the heap of dead, and found in him some signs of life; about that time the Viceroy inquired whether he was still alive; he was told, that if the door was immediately opened, it would, perhaps, be possible to recover him, and orders were accordingly given for this purpose. But the door of the prison opened inwards, and they who were within it, and living, were deprived of all their strength, so that more than twenty minutes elapsed before the dead bodies were removed, which prevented the door from being opened.
At a quarter after six o’clock, there came out of this melancholy dungeon three and twenty persons, the remains of the hundred and forty-six who had entered it on the preceding evening.
Upon the events thus related we have to remark, that no advice could be more judicious than that given by Holwell to his companions in the early part of their imprisonment—“to be quiet and orderly, and not to exhaust their strength by useless efforts.” Nor can we imagine any measure more calculated to increase the sufferings of their situation than that which was subsequently proposed, and adopted, by another of the company, “to fan the air with their hats, and to kneel down and rise together, by a simultaneous motion.” It has been satisfactorily established by physiological researches, that the demand for oxygen, in an animal body, will be in proportion to its expenditure by muscular exertions.[[49]] Whenever, therefore, circumstances may render a supply of air deficient, we shall best economise that which we possess by perfect quiet. Lavoisier says, that a man, under ordinary circumstances, consumes 1300 or 1400 cubic inches of oxygen in an hour, but he found that if he is engaged in raising weights the consumption is at the rate of 3200 in the hour.
Infants appear to be less able to sustain the deprivation of oxygen than adults; and in some cases on record, life has been destroyed by circumstances that we should have a priori considered as hardly adequate to such an effect. A case is related of a child, who was suffocated by some drunken men having repeatedly blown out a candle, and held the smoaking wick under its nose. The faculty of Leipsic investigated the circumstances, and declared the death to have taken place in consequence of suffocation. (Valentini Pand: Med: Legal: Sect: 2.)