From this point of view the action of the advanced reformers was not without some justification. The Government, on the other hand, in deciding to move cautiously in the matter of establishing representative institutions was probably guided by the conviction that the promise in the Imperial Oath made, as it was, in the first flush of revolutionary enthusiasm, should not, in the interests of the country, be construed too literally; and in the light of subsequent events the correctness of its decision was abundantly proved.
The views on the subject of representative government held by advanced reformers, amongst whom Tosa clansmen predominated, had, as we have seen, received substantial recognition from those in authority. A deliberative element had been introduced into the new administration formed after the Restoration; and the principle, thus recognized, had been retained throughout all subsequent administrative changes. After the rupture in the Ministry, which took place in 1873, the Government had again showed itself anxious to meet the wishes of the advanced reformers, who had, meanwhile, formed in the Capital the first political association in Japan, to which the name of “Association of Patriots” (Aikoku-tō) was given. About the same time the chief Tosa leader, Itagaki, had formed in his native province the first local political society called the Risshi-sha or “Association of men with a definite purpose.” In the chapter on “Political Parties” in Fifty Years of New Japan this society is described as a political school similar to the Cadet College established by the elder Saigō before the Satsuma rebellion. Early in 1875 overtures for a reconciliation had been made by the Ministry, and at a Conference in Ōsaka, attended by Itagaki, and by Kido who had resigned from office on another question in the previous year, an understanding was arrived at, both Itagaki and Kido rejoining the Government. So far as the former was concerned, one of the conditions of reconciliation was the creation of the Senate (Genrō-in), to which reference has already been made.
The reconciliation effected with the Tosa party was of short duration. At the assembly of prefects, already noted, which was held a few weeks later, the question of representative government was discussed. The opinion of the prefects was in favour of the Government’s previous decision, announced in its answer to the memorialists in 1873, that the establishment of prefectural assemblies must precede the creation of a National Parliament. The prefects’ endorsement of the attitude already adopted by the Government on this point, and the latter’s final decision not only to withhold from the Senate the elective character desired by the advanced reformers, but to restrict membership to officials only, caused much dissatisfaction in the Tosa party, and in March, 1876, Itagaki again severed his connection with the Government, to which he did not return until several years after parliamentary government had been established. Ever since the first rupture in the Ministry there had been much sympathy between the Tosa party and those Hizen clansmen who entertained similar advanced views on reform. Itagaki’s final withdrawal from the Government led to the establishment of still closer relations. From this moment dates the formation of a regular opposition party of advanced Radicals, and the commencement of a vigorous political agitation in favour of popular reforms, which continued, with intervals of quiescence, for many years.
As the estrangement of Tosa and Hizen clansmen from the Government grew more pronounced in the course of this agitation, the relations between the other two more conservative, and at the same time more warlike, clans, which supplied the military strength essential to the administration, became naturally closer. After the suppression of the Satsuma rebellion—which, as we have seen, in no way impaired Satsuma influence in the Ministry—a more definite understanding in regard to general policy was gradually evolved, with the result, already noted, that the direction of affairs passed into the hands of Satsuma and Chōshiū, where it still remains.
CHAPTER XIII
Japanese Religions before Restoration: Shintō and Buddhism.
In the previous chapter the outbreak and suppression of the Satsuma rebellion were recorded. An outline was also given of the course of events by which the administration assumed a new character, the direction of affairs passing into the hands of the Satsuma and Chōshiū clans. The point now reached, when the new Government is seen at length firmly seated in the saddle, seems to furnish a suitable opportunity for dealing with the subject of religion. Though not in all respects very closely connected with the development of Japan on modern lines, it was, as we have seen, indirectly associated with the work of reconstruction and reform; and this association continues, being noticeable from time to time in various ceremonial changes and other innovations.
In the moulding of Japanese life and character four religions have played a part, Shintō, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. To these a fifth, Christianity in different forms, has in recent times been added. There is nothing peculiar in this, for other countries have more than one religion. But in Japan the existence side by side of religions quite separate in character has had curious results. Not only have the four earliest of these different religions influenced each other in a marked degree, this interaction resulting in one case in a fusion of two faiths which might almost be classified as a fresh religion, or sect, but the singular habit of professing two religions at the same time has been evolved—a circumstance without parallel elsewhere. Every Japanese house, no matter whether the occupant is an adherent of the Shintō, or Buddhist, faith, has both Shintō and Buddhist altars, at which daily offerings are made. To the persons concerned this dual worship conveys no sense of incongruity, nor, strangely enough, is it regarded as incompatible with acknowledged adherence to one of the two faiths. When questioned as to the religion they profess, they will reply that it is Shintō, or Buddhism, as the case may be. And there the matter is left.
Referring to this point the Japan Year Book for 1915 admits that most Japanese are dualist in the matter of religion. “A new-born child,” it says, “is taken to a Shintō”—[the words “or Buddhist” should here have been added]—“temple to invoke the help of the guardian deity for its prosperity or success in life. When it dies, it is taken to a Buddhist temple for burial.”
The foregoing facts seem to confirm the statement made by the author of Fifty Years of New Japan as to the freedom of the Japanese people from sectarian prejudice. “Whereas in China,” Marquis Ōkuma says, “the co-existence of Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism resulted in a war of creeds which weakened that empire, and was the cause of its present condition, the presence side by side of four different beliefs in Japan” [not counting Christianity] “gave rise to no sectarian strife whatever.” Marquis Ōkuma’s assertion applies, indeed, with more accuracy to present than to past times. He appears to overlook more than one instance in Japanese history where excess of religious zeal has caused not only sectarian strife, but popular commotion, which has led in its turn to interference on the part of the authorities. There can be little doubt, however, that the matter of religion has, on the whole, never been taken so seriously by the Japanese as by other peoples. It is equally clear that the authorities in their attitude towards religion have invariably been guided by political expediency, rather than by religious motives.
How far political considerations have affected religious development in Japan will be seen later on in the course of the next chapter, when it will also be more convenient to deal with the latest of Japanese religions, Christianity, as being specially identified with the nation’s modern progress. Let us first dwell briefly on the distinctive features of the religions themselves, as they existed before the reopening of Japan to foreign intercourse, beginning with Shintō the native faith.