Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic

by John Neville Keynes

The problems are, however, in themselves distinct; and some misunderstanding may be avoided if we can make it clear what is the actual problem that we are discussing at any given point.

In particular, it is important to recognise that in the formulation and interpretation of propositions there is an arbitrary and selective element which is absent from the more fundamental problem. Systems of formulation and interpretation, therefore, if only they are intelligible and self-consistent, can hardly be condemned as radically wrong, though they may be rejected as inconvenient or unsuitable. When, however, we are dealing with the fundamental import of judgments, the questions raised do become questions of absolute right or wrong.

It should be added that in the present treatise, since it is concerned with logic in its more formal aspects, questions of interpretation and formulation occupy a position of greater relative importance than they would in a treatment of the science more fully developed on the philosophical side.

49. The Objective Reference in Judgments.—A judgment can be formed or understood only through the occurrence of certain psychical events in the minds of those who form or 75 understand it; and in this sense it may be included amongst subjective states. It is, however, distinguished from all other subjective states by the fact that it claims to be true.

This claim to be true implies an objective reference. For a merely subjective state is not, as such, either true or false; it is simply an occurrence. Thus, the distinction between truth and falsity is inapplicable to an emotion or a volition. An emotion may be pleasurable or painful; it may be strong or weak; it may or may not impel to action; but we cannot describe it as true or false.

And the same applies to a judgment regarded as no more than a subjective connexion of ideas. The claim to truth necessarily involves more than this, namely, a reference to something external to the psychical occurrence involved in the formation of the judgment. Every judgment implies, therefore, on the part of the judging mind, the recognition of an objective system of reality of some sort. The validity that is claimed for judgment is an objective validity.

The word “objective” is always a dangerous word to use, and some further explanation may be given of the meaning to be attached to it here. When we say that a judgment refers to an objective system, we mean a system that subsists independently of the act of judgment itself, and that is not dependent on the passing fancy of the person who forms the judgment. An objective system of reality in this sense may, however, include subjective states, that is, states of consciousness. A body of psychological doctrine consists of judgments relating to states of mind. But such judgments have an external reference (that is, external to the judgments themselves) just as much as a body of judgments relating to material phenomena. Indeed the doctrine of judgment here laid down is not inconsistent with the theory of subjective idealism that resolves all phenomena into states of consciousness.

Even when a judgment relates to purely fictitious objects there is still an external reference,—in this case, to the world of convention.

The particular aspect or portion of the total system of reality referred to in any judgment may sometimes be 76 conveniently spoken of as the universe of discourse. The limits, if any, intended to be placed upon the universe of discourse in any given proposition are usually not explicitly stated; but they must be considered to be implicit in the judgment which the proposition is meant to express, and to be capable of being themselves expressed should there be any danger of misunderstanding. At the same time, it is only fair to add that attempts to define the universe of discourse are likely to raise metaphysical difficulties as to the ultimate nature of reality. What is of main importance from the logical standpoint is the recognition that there is a reference to some system of reality which is to be distinguished from the uncontrolled course of our own ideas. And so far as a distinction can be drawn between different systems of reality, there is need of the assumption that, when we combine judgments or view them in their mutual relations, the universe of discourse is the same throughout.

50. The Universality of Judgments.—The fundamental characteristic then of judgments is their objective reference, their claim to objective validity. It follows that all judgments claim universality, that is to say, they claim to be acknowledged as true not for a given person only, or for a limited number of persons, but for everyone; and again, not for a given time only, or for a limited time, but for all time. In other words, the import of a judgment is not merely to express some connexion of ideas in my own mind; but to express something that claims to be true. And truth is not relative to the individual, nor is it when fully set forth limited by considerations of time.