We have already called attention to the extensive and thorough work performed by Professor Joseph Jones in Tennessee, the report of which was published in 1876 by the Smithsonian Institution in a “contribution” entitled Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains of Tennessee. Professor Jones secured above a hundred mound and stone grave crania, mostly in the valley of the Cumberland and on the banks of the Big Harpeth River. Some of the skeletons accompanying these crania were of gigantic stature, a fact which is at variance with the opinion that they were related to the diminutive race of Inca Peruvians.[243] On the contrary, however, a strong argument for the relationship between the Mound-builders and the Peruvians is found in the frequent occurrence of the Inca-bone (os inca) so-called, on the mound crania.[244] Mr. Henry Gillman found this same bone in one of the crania exhumed by him from the great mound of Rouge River, Michigan, with a disposition to its formation in several others.[245] Professor Jones is convinced of the unity of the mound race throughout the entire Mississippi Basin. The following table of measurements, published in the Antiquities of Tennessee, is one of the most valuable which has yet been prepared:
| Number of Cranium. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Facial Angle in Degrees. | ||||||||||||
| Internal Capacity in Cubic Inches. | ||||||||||||
| Longitudinal Diameter in Inches. | ||||||||||||
| Parietal Diameter. | ||||||||||||
| Frontal Diameter. | ||||||||||||
| Vertical Diameter. | ||||||||||||
| Inter-Mastoid Arch. | ||||||||||||
| Inter-Mastoid Line. | ||||||||||||
| Occipito-Frontal Arch. | ||||||||||||
| Horizontal Periphery. | ||||||||||||
| Diameter of Head and Face. | ||||||||||||
| Zygomatic Diameter. | ||||||||||||
1 | 76.5 | 75. | 6.3 | 5.4 | 4.3 | 5.5 | 15. | 5. | 13.5 | 19. | 7.5 | 5.1 |
2 | 80. | 78. | 6. | 5.6 | 4.4 | 5.4 | 14.6 | 5.1 | 13.2 | 18.9 | 7.2 | 5.2 |
3 | 75. | 78. | 6.1 | 5.7 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 15. | 5.2 | 13. | 19. | 7.3 | 5.3 |
4 | .... | 82. | 6.2 | 5.7 | 4.1 | 5.5 | 15.2 | 5.4 | 14. | 19. | .... | 5.2 |
5 | 77. | 84. | 6.5 | 5.8 | 4.4 | 5.8 | 15.5 | 5.2 | 14.3 | 19.9 | 7.4 | 5.3 |
6 | 76. | 68. | 6.4 | 4.9 | 3.9 | 5.5 | 13.9 | 4.5 | 13.8 | 18.2 | 7.1 | 4.6 |
7 | 81. | 103. | 7. | 5.9 | 4.8 | 6.4 | 16.8 | 5.3 | 15.7 | 20.8 | 7.8 | 5.5 |
8 | 80. | 80. | 6.6 | 5.6 | 4.3 | 5.5 | 15. | 4.6 | 13.8 | 19.3 | 7.2 | 5.2 |
9 | 78. | 79. | 7. | 5.2 | 3.9 | 5.8 | 14.7 | 4.6 | 15.2 | 19.5 | 7.4 | 5. |
10 | 81. | 76. | 6.3 | 6. | 4.4 | 5.4 | 15.7 | 4.6 | 13.8 | 19.4 | 6.8 | 5.3 |
11 | 80. | 90. | 6.9 | 5.6 | 4.3 | 6. | 15.7 | 4.8 | 14.8 | 20.3 | 7.6 | 5.5 |
12 | 77. | 80. | 6.8 | 5.2 | 4.1 | 5.8 | 15. | 4.7 | 14.4 | 19.5 | 7.8 | 5.2 |
13 | 82. | 81. | 6.9 | 5.5 | 4.3 | 5.7 | 15. | 4.8 | 14. | 19.6 | 7.8 | 5. |
14 | .... | 92. | 6.1 | 6.4 | 4.4 | 6. | 16.5 | 5.4 | 13.8 | 19.8 | .... | .... |
15 | .... | 79. | 6.1 | 5.8 | 4.6 | 5.5 | 15. | 4.8 | 13.4 | 18.9 | .... | .... |
16 | .... | .... | 7.2 | 5.7 | 4.6 | 5.9 | 16. | 4.6 | 15.2 | 20.8 | .... | .... |
17 | .... | .... | 6.1 | 5.5 | 4.1 | 4.5 | 14. | .... | 13.6 | 19. | .... | .... |
18 | .... | .... | 6.5 | 5.8 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 15. | .... | .... | 19.4 | .... | .... |
19 | 82. | 79.2 | 6.7 | 5.5 | 4.2 | 5.5 | 15. | 4.4 | 13.5 | 19.1 | 7.8 | 5.2 |
20 | 75. | 81.4 | 6.5 | 5.7 | 4. | 5.6 | 14.4 | 5. | 13.3 | 19.2 | 7.1 | 5.3 |
21 | 82. | 80.5 | 6.4 | 5.9 | 4.6 | 5.7 | 15. | 4.9 | 14. | 19. | 7.3 | 5.4 |
Max. | 82. | 103. | 7.2 | 6.4 | 4.8 | 6.4 | 16.8 | 5.4 | 15.7 | 20.8 | 7.8 | 5.5 |
Min. | 75. | 68. | 6. | 4.9 | 3.9 | 4.5 | 13.9 | 4.4 | 13. | 18.2 | 6.8 | 4.6 |
Mean | 78.8 | 81.44 | 6.5 | 5.68 | 4.21 | 5.56 | 15.0 | 4.57 | 13.88 | 19.8 | 7.4 | 5.2 |
The most noticeable feature in the table aside from the mean cephalic index .874 is the great internal capacity of cranium No. 7, which was found in a stone grave in a mound near Nashville, with a skeleton over six feet long. The occiput is but slightly flattened, and the general contour of the head is symmetrically oval. Morton gives as the mean internal capacity of fifty-two Caucasian skulls 87 cubic inches; the largest of the series measured 109 cubic inches, and the smallest 75 cubic inches. This remarkable cranium gives an internal capacity of 103 cubic inches, vastly above the mean European skull, and only falling six cubic inches below the largest measured by Morton. As we observed a considerable increase in capacity in the Scioto Mound cranium, with its ninety cubic inches, over the crania of the north-west and north, of Michigan and Davenport, so here a most remarkable advance upon the capacity of the Scioto cranium is presented. The evidence of considerable development in the size of the cranium in this same race is clear; and taken with other testimony, such as the great improvement in art and architecture, indicates probably a movement from north to south, and that the mound race was older in the former region than in the latter.
In September, 1877, Prof. F. W. Putnam and Mr. Edwin Curtiss exhumed sixty-seven crania from stone graves located in the neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. These crania were measured by Miss Jennie Smith and Mr. Lucian Carr, and the latter has tabulated and described them in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Peabody Museum (pp. 361 et seq., Cambridge, 1878). As some interesting features occur in the tables, we insert here Mr. Carr’s mean measurements. It will be observed that the classification in this instance is threefold, besides the distinct position assigned to the “much flattened” crania.
MEAN MEASUREMENTS OF SIXTY-SEVEN CRANIA FROM STONE GRAVES IN TENNESSEE.
| Number of Crania. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Capacity. | ||||||||||
| Length. | ||||||||||
| Breadth. | ||||||||||
| Height. | ||||||||||
| Index of Breadth. | ||||||||||
| Index of Height. | ||||||||||
| Width of Frontal. | ||||||||||
| Index of Breadth. | ||||||||||
2 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | ||||||
1 | Dolichocephali | 5 | 1325 | 184 | 132 | 142 | .716 | .775 | 94 | .730 and under. |
6 | 18 | 16 | 11 | 18 | ||||||
2 | Orthocephali | 18 | 1346 | 172 | 134 | 141 | .775 | .819 | 89 | .740 @ .800 |
15 | 29 | 28 | 18 | 29 | ||||||
3 | Brachycephali | 29 | 1284 | 165 | 141 | 142 | .856 | .865 | 90 | .800 @ .900 |
7 | 15 | 15 | 8 | 15 | ||||||
4 | Much Flattened | 15 | 1461 | 156 | 152 | 145 | .973 | .907 | 93 | .900 and over. |
Mr. Carr calls attention to the fact that while the classified crania as a whole are brachycephali, still from twenty-three to thirty-three per cent. of the whole cannot be considered as falling within that group. Whether the five dolichocephali in the table belonged to the same race cannot be determined. They were buried together, for Prof. Putnam found a long and a short skull side by side in the same grave. Mr. A. J. Conant (see Commonwealth of Missouri, St. Louis, 1877, 8vo, pp. 106–7) discovered in a mound in South-eastern Missouri two crania belonging to skeletons buried in regular order, with a large number of other skeletons at the bottom of the mound, which differed strangely from all others found in that locality. The forehead was entirely wanting, and the contour of the top of one of the skulls was almost flat. It closely resembles the Neanderthal skull. Mr. Conant thought it at first to be an intrusive burial, but careful examination proved it to have been placed in position before the building of the mound, and to have been interred with as much care as was bestowed upon any of the other occupants of the mound. Vases, drinking vessels and food-pans accompanied it as they did all the other skeletons.
Mr. Carr thinks such crania as he has pointed out belonged to individuals who were conquered in war, or adopted or introduced into the tribe by intermarriage. Mr. Conant considers that the low type cranium which he discovered belonged to a very ancient race, the predecessors of the Mound-builders, and not far removed from the palæolithic races of Europe.
The mound skulls are readily distinguishable from those of the Red Indian. Only in the Davenport crania and the five dolichocephali from Tennessee do we see any approximation as to form. However, the remaining characteristics of the Davenport crania establish the fact that they belonged to people of the mounds. In our classification of Dr. Morton’s measurements, it will be observed that only two supposed mound skulls appear among the dolichocephali (long skulls, A), and too much doubt is attached to their genuineness to admit of their use in drawing inferences. All the remainder belong to the savage tribes except three Peruvians of the ancient race of the region of Titicaca. In the table of brachycephali but few of the savage tribes are represented, except those which practice artificial compression to the extent of deformity. The mound skull as compared with the Inca Peruvian presents few resemblances, except that both generally belong to the brachycephalic class, and the singular and important fact already mentioned that the Inca bone has been found in North American mound crania. It is possible that when more extensive research is made, this distinguishing feature may lead to the conclusion that the races were one or closely related. On the other hand, the massive bony structure of some of the mound crania does not correspond with the facial bones of the Inca crania, which are very light and delicate. Prof. Wilson has pointed out the additional fact that the vertical diameter of the Peruvian short crania is not so great as that of the mound and Mexican short skulls, but a reference to the Professor’s own tables shows that the mean difference amounts only to thirty-seven-hundredths of an inch, altogether too small a variation to serve as the basis for ethnic generalizations.[246] Few if any similarities can be traced between the dolichocephali of Peru and the brachycephalic Mound-builders, the only resemblances being the heavy bony structure possessed in common by both races. The crania of the dolichocephali of Peru are pronounced of a Mongol cast and form, and are in every respect unlike the mound crania. Turning our attention, however, to the ancient Mexican crania, we find, so far as we are able to judge from the limited number of skulls which have come into the possession of ethnologists, a parallelism in measurements and resemblance in the various distinctive features, such as flattened occiput, broad transverse diameter, retreating forehead, strong bony structure, and a remarkable agreement in vertical diameter with those of the mounds of the Mississippi Basin, which point unmistakably to the closest relationship. Seven Mexican brachycephali measured by Prof. Wilson in the Boston and Philadelphia collections previously referred to, gave a mean vertical diameter of 5.55 inches.[247] Four Mound-builder crania measured by the same investigation gave precisely the same result, while the remaining measurements varied from each other but slightly. In confirmation of this result it is worthy of notice that the mean vertical diameter of the twenty-one mound and stone grave crania from Tennessee varied from that of the Mexican crania by only one one-hundredth of an inch (5.56).
When Dr. Morton began his investigations, he was disposed to recognize the existence of distinct races, represented by the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic crania of Peru.[248] But in later years, and at a period subsequent to the issue of his justly celebrated work, he concluded that the Peruvian elongated head was the product of artificial compression and not the distinguishing mark of an ancient race which long antedated the Incas.[249] Prof. Wilson has thoroughly discussed this subject, and from a series of investigations, conducted on a much more extensive scale than those of Dr. Morton, he has shown conclusively that the distinguished craniologist was quite mistaken as to the facts upon which he based his later views.[250] Much valuable information was afforded Prof. Wilson by the researches and collections of John H. Blake, Esq., made during that gentleman’s residence in Peru, as well as the extensive collection of Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston. Prof. Wilson points out the essential difference between the compressed and the naturally dolichocephalic cranium in these words: “Few who have had extensive opportunities of minutely examining and comparing normal and artificially formed crania, will, I think, be prepared to dispute the fact that the latter are rarely, if ever, symmetrical. The application of pressure on the head of the living child can easily be made to change its natural contour, but it cannot give to its artificial proportions that harmonious repetition of corresponding developments on opposite sides which may be assumed as the normal condition of the unmodified cranium. But in so extreme a case as the conversion of a brachycephalic head averaging about 6.3 inches longitudinal diameter by 5.3 inches parietal diameter into a dolichocephalic head of 7.3 by 4.9 inches diameter, the retention of anything like the normal symmetrical proportions is impossible. Yet the dolichocephalic Peruvian crania present no such abnormal irregularities as could give plausibility to the theory of their form being an artificial one, while peculiarities in the facial proportions confirm the idea that it is of ethnic origin and not the product of deformation.” Besides these differences there are peculiarities of a structural nature sufficient in themselves to distinguish the Peruvian long from the short crania. The former is small, narrow and decidedly long; the forehead is low and retreating, and two-thirds of the brain-cavity lies behind the occipital foramen. The superior maxillary is protruding and holds the incisor teeth obliquely. The weight of the bony structure also exceeds that in the brachycephalic. Though both classes are found artificially compressed, yet they are always distinguishable from each other. One of the best illustrations of this fact, and one already used by Prof. Wilson, is afforded in contrasting two dolichocephalic crania, both obtained by Mr. Blake in his explorations of the ancient cemeteries of Arica and Atacama. Both are evidently of children; one is in its normal condition, symmetrical, and when viewed from above presents the outlines of a graceful oval form, while the other was subjected to such compression as to throw the volume of the brain backward and to greatly deform the frontal bone.[251] A slight tendency to assume the dog-shaped head of the Chinooks of the Columbia River is manifest, where deformation is carried to such an extent as to produce monstrosities. However, even then, the normal brachycephalic type of skull of the Chinooks is not transformed to the dolichocephalic, since the base of the cranium remains comparatively unaffected while distension takes place in a posterior and upward direction. Mr. Squier in his Peru (p. 580, Appendix), has shown that circular compression produces a symmetrical effect in the same direction.