Combination of Musical Sounds—The smaller the Two Numbers which express the Ratio of their Rates of Vibration, the more perfect is the Harmony of Two Sounds—Notions of the Pythagoreans regarding Musical Consonance—Euler’s Theory of Consonance—Theory of Helmholtz—Dissonance due to Beats—Interference of Primary Tones and of Over-tones—Mechanism of Hearing—Schultze’s Bristles—The Otoliths—Corti’s Fibres—Graphic Representation of Consonance and Dissonance—Musical Chords—The Diatonic Scale—Optical Illustration of Musical Intervals—Lissajous’s Figures—Sympathetic Vibrations—Various Modes of illustrating the Composition of Vibrations
§ 1. The Facts of Musical Consonance
THE subject of this day’s lecture has two sides, a physical and an æsthetical. We have to-day to study the question of musical consonance—to examine musical sounds in definite combination with each other, and to unfold the reason why some combinations are pleasant and others unpleasant to the ear.
Pythagoras made the first step toward the physical explanation of the musical intervals. This great philosopher stretched a string, and then divided it into three equal parts. At one of its points of division he fixed it firmly, thus converting it into two, one of which was twice the length of the other. He sounded the two sections of the string simultaneously, and found the note emitted by the short section to be the higher octave of that emitted by the long one. He then divided his string into two parts, bearing to each other the proportion of 2:3, and found that the notes were separated by an interval of a fifth. Thus, dividing his string at different points, Pythagoras found the so-called consonant intervals in music to correspond with certain lengths of his string; and he made the extremely important discovery that the simpler the ratio of the two parts into which the string was divided, the more perfect was the harmony of the two sounds. Pythagoras went no further than this, and it remained for the investigators of a subsequent age to show that the strings act in this way in virtue of the relation of their lengths to the number of their vibrations. Why simplicity should give pleasure remained long an enigma, the only pretence of a solution being that of Euler, which, briefly expressed, is, that the human soul takes a constitutional delight in simple calculations.
The double siren (Fig. 163) enables us to obtain a great variety of combinations of musical sounds. And this instrument possesses over all others the advantage that, by simply counting the number of orifices corresponding respectively to any two notes, we obtain immediately the ratio of their rates of vibration. Before proceeding to these combinations I will enter a little more fully into the action of the double siren than has been hitherto deemed necessary or desirable.
Fig. 163.
The instrument, as already stated, consists of two of Dove’s sirens, C′ and C, connected by a common axis, the upper one being turned upside down. Each siren is provided with four series of apertures, numbering as follows:
| Upper siren Number of apertures | Lower siren Number of apertures | |
| 1st Series | 16 | 18 |
| 2d Series | 15 | 12 |
| 3d Series | 12 | 10 |
| 4th Series | 9 | 8 |
The number 12, it will be observed, is common to both sirens. I open the two series of 12 orifices each, and urge air through the instrument; both sounds flow together in perfect unison; the unison being maintained, however the pitch may be exalted. We have, however, already learned (Chapter II.) that by turning the handle of the upper siren the orifices in its wind-chest C′ are caused either to meet those of its rotating disk, or to retreat from them, the pitch of the upper siren being thereby raised or lowered. This change of pitch instantly announces itself by beats. The more rapidly the handle is turned, the more is the tone of the upper siren raised above or depressed below that of the lower one, and, as a consequence, the more rapid are the beats.