§ 4. Sympathetic Vibration in Relation to the Human Ear
If I dwell so fully upon this object, it is for the purpose of rendering intelligible the manner in which sonorous motion is communicated to the auditory nerve. In the organ of hearing, in man, we have first of all the external orifice of the ear, closed at the bottom by the circular tympanic membrane. Behind that membrane is the drum of the ear, this cavity being separated from the space between it and the brain by a bony partition, in which there are two orifices, the one round and the other oval. These orifices are also closed by fine membranes. Across the drum stretches a series of four little bones. The first, called the hammer, is attached to the tympanic membrane; the second, called the anvil, is connected by a joint with the hammer; a third little round bone connects the anvil with the stirrup-bone, the base of which is planted against the membrane of the oval orifice just referred to. This oval membrane is almost covered by the stirrup-bone, a narrow rim only of the membrane surrounding the bone being left uncovered. Behind the bony partition, and between it and the brain, we have the extraordinary organ called the labyrinth, filled with water, over the lining membrane of which are distributed the terminal fibres of the auditory nerve. When the tympanic membrane receives a shock, it is transmitted through the series of bones above referred to, being concentrated on the membrane against which the base of the stirrup-bone is fixed. The membrane transfers the shock to the water of the labyrinth, which, in its turn, transfers it to the nerves.
The transmission, however, is not direct. At a certain place within the labyrinth exceedingly fine elastic bristles, terminating in sharp points, grow up between the terminal nerve-fibres. These bristles, discovered by Max Schultze, are eminently calculated to sympathize with such vibrations of the water as correspond to their proper periods. Thrown thus into vibration, the bristles stir the nerve-fibres which lie between their roots. At another place in the labyrinth we have little crystalline particles called otolites—the Hörsteine of the Germans—imbedded among the nervous filaments, which, when they vibrate, exert an intermittent pressure upon the adjacent nerve-fibres. The otolites probably serve a different purpose from that of the bristles of Schultze. They are fitted, by their weight, to accept and prolong the vibrations of evanescent sounds, which might otherwise escape attention, while the bristles of Schultze, because of their extreme lightness, would instantly yield up an evanescent motion. They are, on the other hand, eminently fitted for the transmission of continuous vibrations.
Finally, there is in the labyrinth an organ, discovered by the Marchese Corti, which is to all appearance a musical instrument, with its chords so stretched as to accept vibrations of different periods, and transmit them to the nerve-filaments which traverse the organ. Within the ears of men, and without their knowledge or contrivance, this lute of 3,000 strings[76] has existed for ages, accepting the music of the outer world and rendering it fit for reception by the brain. Each musical tremor which falls upon this organ selects from the stretched fibres the one appropriate to its own pitch, and throws it into unisonant vibration. And thus, no matter how complicated the motion of the external air may be, these microscopic strings can analyze it and reveal the constituents of which it is composed. Surely, inability to feel the stupendous wonder of what is here revealed would imply incompleteness of mind; and surely those who practically ignore, or fear them, must be ignorant of the ennobling influence which such discoveries may be made to exercise upon both the emotions and the understanding of man.
§ 5. Consonant Intervals in Relation to the Human Ear
This view of the use of Corti’s fibres is theoretical; but it comes to us commended by every appearance of truth. It will enable us to tie together many things, whose relations it would be otherwise difficult to discern. When a musical note is sounded its corresponding Corti’s fibre resounds, being moved, as a string is moved by a second unisonant string. And when two sounds coalesce to produce beats, the intermittent motion is transferred to the proper fibre within the ear. But here it is to be noted that, for the same fibre to be affected simultaneously by two different sounds, it must not be far removed in pitch from either of them. Call to mind our repetition of Melde’s experiments (in Chapter III.). You then had frequent occasion to notice that, even before perfect synchronism had been established between the string and the tuning-fork to which it was attached, the string began to respond to the fork. But you also noticed how rapidly the vibrating amplitude of the string increased, as it came close to perfect synchronism with the vibrating fork. On approaching unison the string would open out, say to an amplitude of an inch; and then a slight tightening or slackening, as the case might be, would bring it up to unison, and cause it to open out suddenly to an amplitude of six inches.
So also in reference to the experiment made a moment ago with the sonometer; you noticed that the unhorsing of the paper riders was preceded by a fluttering of the bits of paper; showing that the sympathetic response of the second string had begun, though feebly, prior to perfect synchronism. Instead of two strings, conceive three strings, all nearly of the same pitch, to be stretched upon the sonometer; and suppose the vibrating period of the middle string to lie midway between the periods of its two neighbors, being a little higher than the one and a little lower than the other. Each of the side strings, sounded singly, would cause the middle string to respond. Sounding the two side strings together they would produce beats; the corresponding intermittence would be propagated to the central string, which would beat in synchronism with the beats of its neighbors. In this way we make plain to our minds how a Corti’s fibre may, to some extent, take up the vibrations of a note, nearly, but not exactly, in unison with its own; and that when two notes close to the pitch of the fibre act upon it together, their beats are responded to by an intermittent motion on the part of the fibre. This power of sympathetic vibration would fall rapidly on both sides of the perfect unison, so that on increasing the interval between the two notes, a time would soon arrive when the same fibre would refuse to be acted on simultaneously by both. Here the condition of the organ, necessary for the perception of audible beats, would cease.
In the middle region of the pianoforte, with the interval of a semitone, the beats are sharp and distinct, falling indeed upon the ear as a grating dissonance. Extending the interval to a whole tone, the beats become more rapid, but less distinct. With the interval of a minor third between the two notes, the beats in the middle region of the scale cease to be sensible. But this smoothening of the sound is not wholly due to the augmented rapidity of the beats. It is due in part to the fact, for which the foregoing considerations have prepared us, that the two notes here sounded are too far removed from that of the intermediate Corti’s fibre to affect it powerfully. By ascending to the higher regions of the scale we can produce, with a narrower interval than the minor third, the same, or even a greater, number of beats, which are sharply distinguishable because of the closeness of their component notes. In the very highest regions of the scale, however, the beats, when they become very rapid, cease to appeal as roughness to the ear.
Hence both the rapidity of the beats, and the width of the interval, enter into the question of consonance. Helmholtz judges that in the middle and higher regions of the musical scale, when the beats reach 33 per second, the dissonance reaches its maximum. Both slower and quicker beats have a less grating or dissonant effect. When the beats are very slow, they may be of advantage to the music; and, when they reach 132 per second, their roughness is no longer discernible.
Thanks to Helmholtz, whose views I have here sought to express in the briefest possible language, we are now in a condition to grapple with the question of musical intervals, and to give the reason why some are consonant and some dissonant to the ear. Circumstanced as we are upon earth, all our feelings and emotions, from the lowest sensation to the highest æsthetic consciousness, have a mechanical cause: though it may be forever denied to us to take the step from cause to effect; or to understand why the agitations of nervous matter can awaken the delights which music imparts. Take, then, the case of a violin. The fundamental tone of every string of this instrument is demonstrably accompanied by a crowd of overtones; so that, when two violins are sounded, we have not only to take into account the consonance or dissonance of the fundamental tones, but also those of the higher tones of both. Supposing two strings sounded whose fundamental tones, and all of whose partial tones, coincide, we have then absolute unison; and this we actually have when the ratio of vibration is 1:1. So also when the ratio of vibration is accurately 1:2, each overtone of the fundamental finds itself in absolute coincidence with either the fundamental tone or some higher tone of the octave. There is no room for beats or dissonance. When we examine the interval of a fifth, with a ratio of 2:3, we find the coincidence of the partial tones of the two so perfect as almost, though not wholly, to exclude every trace of dissonance. Passing on to the other intervals, we find the coincidence of the partial tones less perfect, as the numbers expressing the ratio of the vibrations become more large. Thus, the dissonance of intervals whose rates of vibration can only be expressed by large numbers, is not to be ascribed to any mystic quality of the numbers themselves, but to the fact that the fundamental tones which require such numbers are inexorably accompanied by partial tones whose coalescence produces beats, these producing the grating effect known as dissonance.