Early Britain—Roman Britain

by John William Edward Conybeare

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK

NAME.	REFERENCE.	APPROXIMATE DATE, ETC.
Aelian	III. A. 6	A.D. 220. Naturalist.
Appian	IV. D. 1	A.D. 140. Historian.
Aristides	V.E. 4	A.D. 160. Orator.
Aristotle	I.C. 1	B.C. 333. Philosopher.
St. Athanasius	V.B. 1, etc.	A.D. 333. Theologian.
Ausonius	V.B. 7	A.D. 380. Poet.
Caesar	V. etc.	B.C. 55. Historian.
Capitolinus	IV. E. 3	A.D. 290. Imperial Biographer.
Catullus	V.E. 4	B.C. 33. Poet.
St. Chrysostom	V.E. 15, etc.	A.D. 380. Theologian.
Cicero	I.D. 3, etc.	B.C. 55. Orator, etc.
Claudian	vi. etc.	A.D. 400. Poet-Historian.
St. Clement	V.E. 4	A.D. 80. Theologian.
Constantius	V.F. 4	A.D. 480. Ecclesiastical Biographer.
Diodorus Siculus	I.E. 11, etc.	B.C. 44. Geographer.
Dion Cassius	v. etc.	A.D. 150. Historian.
Dioscorides	I.E. 4	A.D. 80. Physician.
Eumenius	V.A. 1	A.D. 310. Imperial Panegyrist.
Eutropius	V.A. 1	A.D. 300. Imperial Panegyrist.
Firmicus	V.B. 2	A.D. 350. Controversialist.
Frontinus	III. A. 1	A.D. 80. Wrote on Tactics.
Fronto	IV. D. 2	A.D. 100. Historian.
Gildas	vi. etc.	A.D. 500. Theologian.
Hegesippus	II. F. 3	A.D. 150. Historian.
Herodian	IV. E. 3	A.D. 220. Historian.
Herodotus	I.C. 3	B.C. 444. Historian, etc.
St. Hilary	V.B. 3	A.D. 350. Theologian.
Horace	III. A. 7	B.C. 25. Poet.
Itinerary	IV. A. 7	A.D. 200.
St. Jerome	V.C. 12	A.D. 400. Theologian.
Josephus	III. F. 1	A.D. 70. Historian.
Juvenal	III. F. 5	A.D. 75. Satirist.
Lampridius	IV. E. 1	A.D. 290. Imperial Biographer.
Lucan	II. E. 1	A.D. 60. Historical Poet.
Mamertinus	V.A. 5	A.D. 280. Panegyrist.
Marcellinus	vi. etc.	A.D. 380. Historian.
Martial	vi. etc.	A.D. 70. Epigrammatist.
Maximus	II. C. 13	A.D. 30. Wrote Memorabilia.
Mela	I.H. 7	A.D. 50. Geographer, etc.
Menologia Graeca	V.E. 5	A.D. 550.
Minucius Felix	I.E. 2	A.D. 210. Geographer.
Nemesianus	IV. C. 15	A.D. 280. Wrote on Hunting.
Nennius	vi. etc.	A.D. 500. Historian.
Notitia	vi. etc.	A.D. 406.
Olympiodorus	V.C. 10	A.D. 425. Historian.
Onomacritus	I.C. 1	B.C. 333. Poet.
Oppian	IV. C. 15	A.D. 140. Wrote on Hunting
Origen	V.E. 13	A.D. 220. Theologian.
Pliny	vi. etc.	A.D. 70. Naturalist.
Plutarch	I.C. 1	A.D. 80. Historian, etc.
Polyaenus	II. E. 8	A.D. 180. Wrote on Tactics.
Procopius	V.D. 5	A.D. 555. Wrote on Geography, etc.
Propertius	III. 1. 7	B.C. 10. Poet.
Prosper	V.F. 4	A.D. 450. Ecclesiastical Historian.
Prudentius	IV. C. 15	A.D. 370. Ecclesiastical Poet.
Ptolemy	v. etc.	A.D. 120. Geographer.
Ravenna Geography	vi. etc.	A.D. 450.
Seneca	III. C. 7	A.D. 60. Philosopher.
Sidonius Apollinaris	V.F. 3	A.D. 475. Letters.
Solinus	I.E. 4, etc.	A.D. 80. Geographer.
Spartianus	IV. D. 2	A.D. 303. Historian.
Strabo	vi. etc.	B.C. 20. Geographer.
Suetonius	I.H. 10	A.D. 110. Imperial Biographer.
Symmachus	IV. C. 15	A.D. 390. Statesman, etc.
Tacitus	v. etc.	A.D. 80. Historian.
Tertullian	V.E. 11	A.D. 180. Theologian.
Theodoret	V.E. 4	A.D. 420. Wrote Commentaries.
Tibullus	III. A. 7	B.C. 20. Poet.
Timaeus	I.D. 2	B.C. 300. Geographer.
Vegetius	V.B. 5	A.D. 380. Historian.
Venantius	V.E. 4	A.D. 580. Wrote Ecclesiastical Poems.
Victor	V.A. 9	A.D. 380. Historian.
Virgil	III. 1. 7	B.C. 30. Poet.
Vitruvius	I.G. 5	A.D. Wrote on Geography, etc.
Vobiscus	IV. C. 17	A.D. 290. Historian.
Xiphilinus	vi. etc.	A.D. 1200. Abridged Dio Cassius.
Zosimus	V.C. 11	A.D. 400. Historian.

---

LATER AUTHORITIES

The constant accession of new material, especially from the unceasing spade-work always going on in every quarter of the island, makes modern books on Roman Britain tend to become obsolete, sometimes with startling rapidity. But even when not quite up to date, a well-written book is almost always very far from worthless, and much may be learnt from any in the following list:—

BABCOCK	'The Two Last Centuries of Roman Britain' (1891).
BARNES	'Ancient Britain' (1858).
BROWNE, BISHOP	'The Church before Augustine' (1895).
BRUCE	'Handbook to the Roman Wall' (1895).
CAMDEN	'Britannia' (1587).
COOTE	'Romans in Britain' (1878).
DAWKINS	'Early Man in Britain' (1880).
	'The Place of the Welsh in English History' (1889).
DILL	'Roman Society' (1899).
ELTON	'Origins of English History' (1890).
EVANS, SIR J.	'British Coins' (1869).
	'Bronze Implements' (1881).
	'Stone Implements' (1897).
FREEMAN	'Historical Essays' (1879).
	'English Towns' (1883).
	'Tyrants of Britain' (1886).
FROUDE	'Julius Caesar' (1879).
GUEST	'Origines Celticae' (1883).
HADDAN AND STUBBS	'Concilia' (1869).
	'Remains' (1876).
HARDY	'Monumenta Historica Britannica' (1848).
HAVERFIELD	'Roman World' (1899), etc.
HODGKIN	'Italy and her Invaders' (1892), etc.
HOGARTH (ed.)	'Authority and Archaeology' (1899).
HORSLEY	'Britannia Romana' (1732).
HUEBNER	'Inscriptiones Britannicae Romanae' (1873).
	'Inscriptiones Britannicae'
	'Christianae' (1876), etc.
KEMBLE	'Saxons in England' (1876).
KENRICK	'Phoenicia' (1855).
	'Papers on History' (1864).
LEWIN	'Invasion of Britain' (1862).
LUBBOCK, SIR J.	'Origin of Civilization' (1889).
LYALL	'Natural Religion' (1891).
LYELL	'Antiquity of Man' (1873).
MAINE, SIR H.	'Early History of Institutions' (1876).
MAITLAND	'Domesday Studies' (1897).
MARQUARDT	'Römische Staatsverwaltung' (1873).
MOMMSEN	'Provinces of the Roman Empire' (1865).
NEILSON	'Per Lineam Valli' (1892).
PEARSON	'Historical Atlas of Britain' (1870).
RHYS	'Celtic Britain' (1882).
	'Celtic Heathendom' (1888).
	'Welsh People' (1900).
ROLLESTON	'British Barrows' (1877).
	'Prehistoric Fauna' (1880).
SCARTH	'Roman Britain' (1885).
SMITH, C.R.	'Collectanea' (1848), etc.
TOZER	'History of Ancient Geography' (1897).
TRAILL AND MANN	'Social England' (1901).
USHER, BP.	'British Ecclesiastical Antiquity' (1639).
VINE	'Caesar in Kent' (1899).
WRIGHT	'Celt, Roman and Saxon' (1875).

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

DATE	EVENTS.	EMPEROR.
B.C.
350 (?)	Pytheas discovers Britain [I.D. 1]
100 (?)	Divitiacus Overlord of Britain (?)
	[II. B. 4]
	Gauls settle on Thames and Humber
	(?) [I.F. 4]
	Posidonius visits Britain [I.D. 3]
	Birth of Julius Caesar [II. A. 6]
58	Caesar conquers Gaul [II. A. 9]
56	Sea-fight with Veneti and Britons
	[II. B. 3]
55	First invasion of Britain
	[II. C., D.]
	Cassivellaunus Overlord of Britain
	(?) [II. F. 3]
	Mandubratius, exiled Prince of
	Trinobantes, appeals to Caesar (?)
	[II. E. 10]
54	Second Invasion of Britain
	[II. E., F., G.]
52	Revolt of Gaul. Commius, Prince
	of Arras, flies to Britain and
	reigns in South-east [III. A. 1]
44	Caesar slain [II. G. 9]
32	Battle of Actium [III. A. 6]	Augustus.
	About this time the sons of Commius
	reign in Kent, etc., Addeomarus
	over Iceni, and Tasciovan
	at Verulam [III. A. 1]
A.D.	About this time the Commian
	princes are overthrown
	[III. A. 2]
	Cymbeline, son of Tasciovan, becomes
	Overlord of Britain
	[III. A. 4]. Commians appeal to
	Augustus [III. A. 5]
14	Death of Augustus	Tiberius.
29	Consulship of the Gemini. The
	Crucifixion (?)
37	Death of Tiberius	Caligula.
40 (?)	Cymbeline banishes Adminius,
	who appeals to Rome [III. A. 5]
	Caligula threatens invasion
	[III. A. 6]
41	Caligula poisoned [III. A. 9]	Claudius.
	Death of Cymbeline (?). His son
	Caradoc succeeds
43	Antedrigus and Vericus contend
	for Icenian throne: Vericus appeals
	to Rome [III. A. 9]
44	Claudius subdues Britain [III. B.]
	Cogidubnus, King in South-east,
	made Roman Legate [III. C. 8]
45	Triumph of Claudius
	[III. C. 1, 2]
47	Ovation of Aulus Plautius, conqueror
	of Britain. [III. C. 2]
48	Vespasian and Titus crush British
	guerrillas [III. C. 3]
50	Britain made "Imperial" Province.
	Ostorius Pro-praetor
	[III. C. 9]
	Icenian revolt crushed [III. D.
	1-6].
	Camelodune a colony [III. D. 8]
51	Silurian revolt under Caradoc
	[III. D. 7, 8]
52	Caradoc captive [III. D. 9]
53	Uriconium and Caerleon founded
	[III. D. 12]
54	Death of Ostorius [III. D. 11]
55	Didius Gallus Pro-praetor. Last
	Silurian effort [III. D. 13]
	Death of Claudius [III. D. 13]	Nero.
56 (?)	Aulus Plautius marries Pomponia
	Graecina [V.E. 10]
61	Suetonius Paulinus Pro-praetor
	[III. E. 7]
	Massacre of Druids in Mona
	[III. E. 8, 9]
	Boadicean revolt [III. E. 2-13].
	St. Peter in Britain (?) [V.E. 5]
62	Turpiliannus Pro-praetor. "Peace"
	in Britain [III. E. 13]
63 (?)	Claudia Rufina Marries Pudens
	[V.E. 9]
64	Burning of Rome. First Persecution.
	St. Paul in Britain (?)
	[V.E. 4]
65	Aristobulus Bishop in Britain (?)
	[V.E. 5]
68	Death of Nero (June 10)	Galba.
	Galba slain (Dec. 16)	Civil War between
69	Otho slain (April 20)	Otho and Vitellius.
	Vitellius slain (Dec. 20)
	British army under Agricola	Vespasian.
	pronounces for Vespasian
	[III. F. 1]
70	Cerealis Pro-praetor. Brigantes
	subdued by Agricola [III. F. 1]
	Destruction of Jerusalem
	[IV. C. 5]
75	Frontinus Pro-praetor. Silurians
	subdued by Agricola [III. F. 2]
78	Agricola Pro-praetor. Ordovices
	and Mona subdued [III. F. 3]
79	Agricola Latinizes Britain [III.	Titus.
	F. 4]. Vespasian dies
80	Agricola's first Caledonian campaign
	[III. F. 5].
81	Agricola's rampart from Forth to	Domitian.
	Clyde [III. F. 7]. Titus dies
82	Agricola invades Ireland (?) [III.
	F. 5]
83	Agricola advances into Northern
	Caledonia [III. F. 5]
	First circumnavigation of Britain
	[III. F. 7]
84	Agricola defeats Galgacus [III.
	F. 6], resigns and dies [III. F. 7]
95	Second persecution. Flavia Domitilla
	[V.E. 11]
96	Domitian slain	Nerva.
98	Nerva dies	Trajan.
117	Trajan dies	Hadrian.
120	Hadrian visits Britain and builds Wall
	[IV. D. 1]
	Britain divided into "Upper" and
	"Lower" [IV. D. 3]
	First "Britannia" coinage [IV. D. 4]
138	Hadrian dies	Antoninus Pius.
139	Lollius Urbicus, Legate in Britain,
	replaces Agricola's rampart by turf
	wall from Forth to Clyde [IV. D. 5]
140	Britain made Pro-consular [IV. E. 5]
161	Antoninus dies	Marcus Aurelius.
180	British Church organized by Pope
	Eleutherius (?) [V.E. 12]
	Marcus Aurelius dies	Commodus.
181	Caledonian invasion driven back by
	Ulpius Marcellus [IV. E. 1]
184	Commodus "Britannicus" [IV. E. 1]
185	British army mutinies against reforms
	of Perennis [IV. E. 1]
187	Pertinax quells mutineers [IV. E. 3]
192	Pertinax superseded by Junius Severus
	[IV. E. 3]
	Death of Commodus	Interregnum.
193	Pertinax slain by Julianus and Albinus.	Pertinax; Julianus;
	Julianus slain	Albinus; Severus.
	Severus proclaimed. Albinus Emperor in
	Britain [IV. E. 3]
197	British army defeated at Lyons.	Severus.
	Albinus slain [IV. E. 3]
201	Vinius Lupus, Pro-praetor, buys off
	Caledonians [IV. E. 4]
208	Caledonian invasion. Severus comes to
	Britain [IV. E. 5]
209	Severus overruns Caledonia
	[IV. E. 5]
210	Severus completes Hadrian's Wall
	[IV. E. 6]
211	Severus dies at York [IV. G. 2]	Caracalla.
		Geta.
212	Geta murdered [IV. G. 2]	Caracalla.
215 (?)	Roman citizenship extended to
	British provincials [IV. G. 2]
(?)	Itinerary of Antonius [IV. A. 7]
217	Caracalla slain	Macrinus.
218	Macrinus slain	Helagabalus.
222	Helagabalus slain	Alexander Severus.
235	Alexander Severus slain	Maximin.
238	Maximin slain	Gordian.
244	Gordian slain	Philip.
249	Philip slain	Decius.
251	Decius slain	Gallus.
254	Gallus slain	Valerian.
		{Gallienus.
258	Postumus proclaimed Emperor in
	Britain [V.A. 1]
260	Valerian slain	Gallienus.
265	Victorinus associated with
	Postumus [V.A. 1]
268	Gallienus slain	Tetricus.
269	Tetricus slain	Claudius Gothicus.
270	Claudius Gothicus dies	Aurelian.
273 (?)	Constantius Chlorus marries
	Helen, a British lady [V.A. 6]
274	Constantine the Great born at
	York [V.A. 6]
275	Aurelian slain	Tacitus.
276	Tacitus slain	Florianus.
	Florianus slain	Probus.
277	Vandal prisoners deported to
	Britain [V.A. 1]
282	Probus slain	Carus.
283	Carus dies	Numerian.
284	Numerian dies	Carinus.
285	Carinus dies	Diocletian.
		Maximian.
286	Carausius, first "Count of the
	Saxon Shore," becomes Emperor
	in Britain [V.A. 3]
292	Constantine and Galerius "Caesars"
	[V.A. 5]
294	Carausius murdered by Allectus
	[V.A. 4]
296	Constantius slays Allectus and
	recovers Britain [V.A. 7, 8]
	Britain divided into four "Diocletian"
	Provinces [V.A. 9]
303	Tenth Persecution. Martyrdom
	of St. Alban [V.A. 11]
305	Diocletian and Maximian abdicate	Constantius.
	[V.A. 12]	Galerius.
306	Constantius dies at York [V.A.
	13]. Constantine, Galerius,
	Maxentius, Licinius, etc., contend	Interregnum.
	for Empire [V.A. 14]
312	Constantine with British Army
	wins at Milvian Bridge, and
	embraces Christianity [V.A. 14]	Constantine.
314	Council of Arles [V.E. 14]
325	Council of Nicaea [V.B. 1]
		Constantine II.
337	Constantine dies	Constantius II.
		Constans.
340	Constantine II. dies
343	Constans and Constantius II. visit
	Britain [V.B. 1]
350	Constans slain. Usurpation of	Constantius II.
	Magnentius in Britain [V.B. 3]
353	Magnentius dies [V.B. 3]
358	Britain under Julian. Exportation
	of corn [V.B. 4]
360	Council of Ariminum [V.E. 14]
361	Death of Constantius [V.B. 6]	Julian.
362	Lupicinus, Legate in Britain, repels
	first attacks of Picts
	and Scots [V.B. 5]
363	Julian dies	Valentinian.
		Valens.
365	Saxons, Picts, and Scots ravage
	shores of Britain [V.B. 7]
		Valentinian.
366	Gratian associated in Empire	Valens.
		Gratian.
367	Great barbarian raid on Britain
	Roman commanders slain
	[V.B. 7]
368	Theodosius, Governor of Britain,
	expels Picts and Scots
	[V.B. 7]
369	Theodosius recovers Valentia
	[V.B. 7]
374	Saxons invade Britain [V.B. 8]
		Valens.
375	Valentinian dies	Gratian.
		{Valentinian II.
		Gratian.
378	Valens slain. Theodosius associated	Valentinian II.
	in Empire	Theodosius.
383	Gratian slain. British Army proclaims	Valentinian II.
	Maximus and conquer	Theodosius.
	Gaul [V.C. 1]
387	British Army under Maximus take
	Rome [V.C. 1]
388	Maximus slain. First British
	settlement in Armorica (?) [V.
	C. 1]
392	Valentinian II. slain. Penal laws	Theodosius.
	against Heathenism
394	Ninias made Bishop of Picts by
	Pope Siricius (?) [V.F. 1]
395	Death of Theodosius	Arcadius.
		Honorius.
396	Stilicho sends a Legion to protect
	Britain (?) [V.C. 1]
		Arcadius.
402	Theodosius II. associated in Empire	Honorius.
		Theodosius II.
406	Stilicho recalls Legion to meet
	Radagaisus [V.C. 2]
	'Notitia' composed (?) [V.C. 3-9]
	German tribes flood Gaul [V.C. 2]
407	British Army proclaim Constantine
	III. and reconquer Gaul [V.C.
	10]
408	Arcadius dies. Constantine III.	Honorius.
	recognized as "Augustus"	Theodosius II.
		Constantine III.
410	Visigoths under Alaric take Rome
	[V.C. 11]
411	Constantine III. slain	Honorius.
		Theodosius II.
413 (?)	Pelagian heresy arises in Britain
	[V.F. 3]
415 (?)	Rescript of Honorius to the Cities
	of Britain [V.C. 11]
423	Death of Honorius	Theodosius II.
425	Valentinian III., son of Galla	Theodosius II.
	Placidia, Emperor of West [V.D. 3]	Valentinian III.
429 (?)	SS. Germanus and Lupus sent to
	Britain by Pope Celestine (?)
	[V.F. 4]
432 (?)	St. Patrick sent to Ireland by
	Pope Celestine [V.F. 2]
435 (?)	Roman Legion sent to aid Britons (?)
436 (?)	Roman forces finally withdrawn (?)
446	Vain appeal of Britons to Actius (?)
	[V.D. 2]
447 (?)	The Alleluia Battle [V.F. 4]
449 (?)	Hengist and Horsa settle in
	Thanet (?) [V.D. 3]
450 (?)	English defeat Picts at Stamford(?)
	[V.B. 2]
	Theodosius II. dies	Valentinian III.
455 (?)	Battle of Aylesford begins English
	conquest of Britain (?) [V.D. 2]