The Analogy of Religion to the Constitution and Course of Nature / To which are added two brief dissertations: I. On personal identity. II. On the nature of virtue.

by Joseph Butler

Why we should be placed in the condition spoken of in the last chapter, is a question which cannot be answered. It may be that we could not understand, if told. And if we could, it might injure us to know, just now. It certainly is consistent with God’s righteous government.

Religion tells us that we are so placed in order to become qualified for a better state.

This, though a very partial answer to the inquiry why we are so placed, answers an infinitely more important question,—viz.: What is our business here?

I. We are placed in this state of trial, for our improvement in virtue, as the requisite qualification for future security and happiness.

• 1. Every creature is designed for a particular way of life.
  • 1.) Happiness depends on the congruity between a creature’s nature and its circumstances.
  • 2.) Man’s character might be so changed as to make him incapable of happiness on earth.
  • 3.) Or he might be placed, without changing his nature, in a world where he must be wretched, for want of the proper objects to answer to his desires.
  • 4.) So that without determining what is the future condition of good men, we know there must be necessary qualifications to make us capable of enjoying it.
• 2. Human beings are so constituted as to become fit for new and different conditions.
  • 1.) We not only acquire ideas, but store them up.
  • 2.) We can become more expert in any kind of action.
  • 3.) And can make settled alterations in our tempers.
  • 4.) We can form habits—both bodily and mental.
  • As these operate in producing radical changes in human character, we will look for a moment at the process.
    • —Neither perceptions, nor knowledge, are habits; though necessary to forming them.
    • —There are habits of perception, however, and habits of action: the former are passive, the latter active.
    • —Habits of body are produced by external acts, and habits of mind by the exertion of principles; i.e. carrying them out.
    • —Resolutions to do well are acts, and may help towards forming good habits. But mere theorizing, and forming pictures in the mind, not only do not help, but may harden the mind to a contrary course.
    • —Passive impressions, by repetition grow weaker. Thus familiarity with danger lessens fear.
    • —Hence active habits may be formed and strengthened, by acting according to certain motives or excitements, which grow less sensibly felt and less and less felt, as the habit strengthens.
      • · Thus the sight of distress excites the passive emotion of pity, and the active principle of benevolence. But inquiring out cases of distress in order to relieve them, causes diminished sensitiveness at the sight of misery, and stronger benevolence and aptitude in relieving it.
      • · So admonition, experience, and example, if acted upon, produce good; if not, harden.
  • 5.) The formation of a habit may be imperceptible and even inexplicable, but the thing itself is matter of certain experience.
  • 6.) A habit once formed, the action becomes easy and often pleasurable: opposite inclinations grow weaker: difficulties less: and occasions more frequent.
  • 7.) Thus, a new character, in several respects, is formed.
• 3. We should not have these capacities for improvement and for the reconstruction of character, if it were not necessary.
  • 1.) They are necessary, even as to this life.
    • —We are not qualified, at first, for mature life: understanding and strength come gradually.
    • —If we had them in full, at birth, we should at first be distracted and bewildered, and our faculties would be of no use previous to experience. Ignorant of any employment, we could not provide for ourselves.
    • —So that man is an unformed, unfinished creature, even as to this world, till he acquire knowledge, experience, and habits.
  • 2.) Provision is made for our acquiring, in youth, the requisite qualities for manhood.
    • —Children learn, from their very birth,
      • · The nature and use of objects.
      • · The subordinations of domestic life.
      • · The rules of life.
    • —Some of this learning is acquired so insensibly, as to seem like instinct, but some requires great care and labor, and the doing of things we are averse to.
    • —According as we act during this formative period, is our character formed; and our capacity for various stations in society determined.
    • —Early opportunities lost, cannot be recovered.
  • 3.) Our state of discipline throughout this life, for another, is exactly of the same kind: and comprehended under one general law.
    • —If we could not see how the present discipline fitted us for a higher life, it would be no objection.
      • · We do not know how food, sleep, &c. enlarges the child’s body; nor would we expect such a result, prior to experience.
      • · Nor do children understand the need of exercise, temperance, restraint, &c.
    • —We thus see a general analogy of Providence indicating that the present life is preparatory.
• 4. If virtue is a necessary qualification for future happiness, then we see our need of the moral culture of our present state.
  • 1.) Analogy indicates that our future state will be social.
    • —Nature furnishes no shadow of unreasonableness in the Scripture doctrine that this future community will be under the more immediate government of God.
    • —Nor the least proof that its members will not require the exercise of veracity, justice, &c. towards each other; and that character which results from the practice of such virtues.
    • —Certainly the universe is under moral government; and a virtuous character must, in some way, be a condition of happiness in that state.
  • 2.) We are deficient, and in danger of deviating from what is right.
    • —We have desires for outward objects.
    • —The times, degrees, &c. of gratifying these desires, are, of right, subject to the control of the moral principle.
    • —But that principle neither excites them, nor prevents their being excited.
    • —They may exist, when they cannot be lawfully gratified, or gratified at all.
    • —When the desire exists, and the gratification is unlawful, we are tempted.
  • 3.) The only security is the principle within.
    • —The strengthening of this lessens the danger.
    • —It may be strengthened, by discipline and exercise.
      • · Noting examples.
      • · Attending to the right, and not to preference.
      • · Considering our true interests.
    • —When improved, it becomes, in proportion to its strength, our security from the dangers of natural propensions.
    • —Virtue, become habitual by discipline, is improved virtue; and improved virtue must produce increased happiness, if the government of the world is moral.
  • 4.) Even creatures made upright may fall.
    • —The fall of an upright being, is not accounted for by the nature of liberty; for that would only be saying that an event happened because it might happen.
    • —But from the very nature of propensions.
    • —A finitely perfect being would have propensions corresponding to its surroundings; its understanding; and its moral sense; and all these in due proportions.
    • —Such a being would have propensions, though the object might not be present, or the indulgence might be contrary to its moral sense; and this would have some tendency, however small, to induce gratification.
    • —The tendency would be increased by the frequency of occasions; and yet more by the least indulgence, even in thought; till, under peculiar conjunctures, it would become effect.
    • —The first transgression might so utterly disorder the constitution, and change the proportions of forces, as to lead to a repetition of irregularities; and hence to the construction of bad habits, and a depraved character.
  • 5.) On the contrary, a finitely perfect being may attain higher virtue, and more security, by obeying the moral principle.
    • —For the danger would lessen, by the increased submissiveness of propensions.
    • —The moral principle would gain force by exercise.
  • 6.) Thus vice is not only criminal, but degrading; and virtue is not only right, but improving.
    • —The degree of improvement may be such that the danger of sinning may be almost infinitely lessened.
    • —Yet the security may always be the habits formed in a state of discipline; making such a state altogether fit and necessary.
  • 7.) This course of reasoning is vastly stronger when applied to fallen and corrupt creatures.
    • —The upright need improvement; the fallen must be renewed.
    • —Discipline is expedient for the one; necessary for the other; and of a severer sort.

II. The present world is peculiarly fit for such discipline as we need.

• 1. Surrounding evils tend to produce moderation, practical knowledge, &c. very different from a mere speculative knowledge of our liability to vice and misery.
• 2. Our experience in this world, with right views and practice, may leave eternal impressions for good.
• 3. Every act of self-government in the exercise of virtue, must, from the very make of our nature, form habits of virtue, and a more intense virtuous principle.
• 4. Resolute and persevering resistance to particular and violent temptations, is a continued act of virtue, and that in a higher degree than if the seduction were transient and weak.
• 5. Self-denial is not essential to virtue, but is almost essential to discipline and improvement.
  • 1.) Because actions materially virtuous, which have no difficulty, but agree with our inclinations, may be done merely from inclination, and so not be really virtuous.
  • 2.) But when they are done in face of danger and difficulty, virtuousness is increased, and confirmed into a habit.
• Objec. 1. As our intellectual or physical powers may be overtasked, so may our moral.
  • Ans. This may be so in exceptional cases, but it does not confute the argument. In general, it holds good. All that is intended to be proved is, that this world is intended to be a state of improvement, and is fitted for it.
    • 1.) Some sciences which of themselves are highly improving, require a trying measure of attention, which some will not submit to.
    • 2.) It is admitted that this world disciplines many to vice: but this viciousness of many is the very thing which makes the world a virtuous discipline to good men. The whole end in placing mankind as they are we know not; but these things are evident—the virtues of some are exercised:—and so exercised as to be improved: and improved beyond what they would be in a perfectly virtuous community.
    • 3.) That all, or even the generality, do not improve, is no proof that their improvement was not intended. Of seeds and animals not one in a million comes to perfection; yet such as do, evidently answer an end for which they were designed. The appearance of waste in regard to seeds, &c. is just as unaccountable, as the ruin of moral agents.
• Objec. 2. Rectitude arising from hope and fear, is only the discipline of self-love.
  • Ans. Obedience is obedience, though prompted by hope or fear: and a course of such obedience, forms a habit of it: and distinct habits of various virtues, by repressing inclination whenever justice, veracity, &c. require.
    Beside, veracity, justice, regard to God’s authority, and self-interest, are coincident; and each, separately, a just principle. To begin a good life from either of them, and persist, produces that very character which corresponds to our relations to God, and secures happiness.
• Objec. 3. The virtues requisite for a state of afflictions, and produced by it, are not wanted to qualify us for a state of happiness.
  • Ans. Such is not the verdict of experience. Passive submission is essential to right character. Prosperity itself begets extravagant desires; and imagination may produce as much discontent as actual condition. Hence, though we may not need patience in heaven, we shall need that temper which is formed by patience.
    Self-love would always coincide with God’s commands, when our interest was rightly understood; but it is liable to error. Therefore, HABITS of resignation are necessary, for all creatures; and the proper discipline for resignation is affliction.
• Objec. 4. The trouble and danger of such discipline, might have been avoided by making us at once, what we are intended to become.
  • Ans. What we are to be, is the effect of what we are to do. God’s natural government is arranged not to save us from trouble or danger, but to enable and incline us to go through them. It is as natural for us to seek means to obtain things, as it is to seek the things; and in worldly things we are left to our choice, whether to improve our powers and so better our condition, or to neglect improvement and so go without the advantage.
    Analogy, therefore, makes the same arrangement credible, as to a future state.

III. This state of discipline may be necessary for the display of character.

• 1. Not to the all-knowing Being, but to his creation, or part of it, and in many ways which we know not.
• 2. It may be a means in disposing of men according to character.
• 3. And of showing creation that they are so disposed of.
• 4. Such display of character certainly contributes, largely, to the general course of things considered in this chapter.