A very simple example of a chemical process is a mixture of sulphur and zinc in atomic proportions, which, when lighted with a match, is rapidly converted into white sulphide of zinc, with appearance of flame. Another example, a mixture of sulphur and fine iron-filings, which, when moistened with a little water, rapidly changes into a black sulphide of iron. Then some copper-filings, which, when heated on a saucer in the open air, slowly change into black oxide of copper. Then a bit of phosphorus, burned in dry air under a glass bell, yielding a white oxide. Next, some zinc, dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid, yielding hydrogen gas and sulphate of zinc. Then, a solution of chloride of barium added to a solution of sulphate of soda, giving a precipitate of sulphate of baryta, and leaving in solution common salt, which can be recovered by evaporating the filtrate.
In all these examples the student should be made to see and handle all the factors and all the products of each process, and the experiments should be selected so that he may become familiar with the different conditions under which substances appear, and with various kinds of chemical processes. He should also be made clearly to distinguish between the essential features of the process and the different accessories, which may be more or less accidental—such, for example, as the water used in determining the combination of iron and sulphur, or the flame which accompanies combustion.
After a clear conception has been gained of a chemical process, with its definite factors and definite products, we are prepared for the next important step. Every chemical process obeys three fundamental laws:
The Law of Conservation of Mass.
The Law of Definite Proportions.
The Law of Definite Volumes.
According to the first law, the sum of the weights of the products of a chemical process is always equal to the sum of the weights of the factors. This law must now be illustrated by experiments, and approximate quantitative determinations should be introduced thus early into the course of study. All that is required for this purpose is a common pair of scales, capable of weighing two or three hundred grammes, and turning with a decigramme. We use in our laboratory some platform-scales, made by the Fairbanks Company, which are inexpensive, and serve a very useful purpose.
A very satisfactory illustration of the law of conservation of mass can be obtained by inserting in a glass flask a mixture of copper-filings and sulphur in atomic proportions. The glass flask is first balanced in the scale-pan; then removed and gently heated until the ignition which spreads through the mass shows that chemical combination has taken place. The flask is lastly allowed to cool, and on reweighing is found not to have altered in weight.
For a second experiment, a bit of phosphorus may, with the aid of some simple contrivance, be burned inside a tightly-corked glass flask, of sufficient volume to afford the requisite supply of oxygen. Of course, on reweighing the flask, after the chemical change has taken place, and the bottom of the flask covered with the white oxide formed, there will be no change of weight, and this experiment may be made to enforce the truth that, in this example of combustion at least, the chemical process is attended with no loss of material. Open now the flask, and air will rush in to supply the partial vacuum, proving that in the process of combustion a portion of the material of the air has united to form the white product.
Make now a third experiment as an application of the general principle which has been illustrated by the previous experiments. Burn some finely divided iron (iron reduced by hydrogen) on a scale-pan, and show that the process is attended by an increase of weight. What does this mean? Why, that some material has united with the iron to form the new product. Whence has this material come? Obviously from the air, for it could come from nowhere else. And thus, besides illustrating the first of the above laws, this experiment may be made to furnish an instructive lesson in regard to the relations of the oxygen of the atmosphere to chemical processes.