The trappean rocks are also of igneous origin. It is evident, from their occurring in the form of dikes, that they have been in a melted state. As they rest upon rocks of a sedimentary origin, they must have been thrown up by volcanic forces. Yet they differ from ordinary lavas. They are not vesicular in their structure, are more crystalline, and there is in no case evidence that they have flowed from craters. If we regard them as the lavas of submarine volcanoes, we shall have conditions which will account for all their peculiarities. At a certain depth the pressure of the water would be sufficient to prevent the formation and escape of vapor, and therefore the lavas thus ejected would not be vesicular. As the rapid cooling of lavas depends, in a great degree, upon the escape of watery vapor, submarine lavas would cool slowly, in consequence of the pressure. The liquidity depending in part upon the retention of the heat, and in part upon the retention of the aqueous vapor, they would consequently remain in a liquid state much longer than the lavas of sub-aërial volcanoes. They would therefore take a more highly crystalline form. All the loose materials thrown out during the eruption would be removed by oceanic currents, and hence no cone would be built up around the orifice of eruption. We may therefore regard the trappean rocks as the lavas of submarine volcanoes. The present volcanoes of this kind are necessarily producing the same kind of rocks, though there will be no other proof that they exist, except the existence of the volcano, till the bed of the sea becomes dry land.
The granitic rocks are also the product of igneous causes. Granite is the most abundant of these crystalline rocks; and the others, such as crystalline limestone, are so intimately associated with granite that they must have had the same origin. Granite is everywhere found to send off dikes into the overlying rocks, and must therefore have been in a state of fusion; that is, it must have existed as lava beneath the surface. It is obvious that fluid lava always exists in great quantity beneath areas of energetic volcanic activity.
Portions of this lava must in succession take the solid form. Wherever the surface is elevated along a line of fracture, the lava which is accumulated beneath rises above the level of the general reservoir of lava, and will therefore part with its heat more rapidly. On cooling, it becomes the granitic nucleus of the mountain. We ought also to suppose that, by the extremely slow process of the transmission of heat to the surface, the crust of the earth is everywhere increasing in thickness; that is, the upper portion of the great lava mass is solidifying.
Sir James Hall has shown, by experiment, that earthy substances, reduced to a state of fusion, become more highly crystalline as they are allowed to cool more slowly, and are subjected to greater pressure. It is difficult to conceive of these conditions existing in a higher degree than they do in the cooling masses of lava below the stratified rocks. These lavas must therefore take the highly crystalline form which the granitic rocks are found to have.
All the igneous rocks have therefore existed as subterranean lavas. The volcanic rocks have become vitreous, the granitic are crystalline, and the trappean are intermediate in structure, coinciding with the circumstances of pressure and rate of cooling under which they have severally been formed.
5. The Elevation of Mountains is another result of volcanic action. The height of mountains depends, in part, upon general elevation. Yet there is a different action, upon which the existence of the mountain, as such, depends. Whenever igneous action becomes intense under any portion of the earth’s surface, and the elastic force greater than the repressive, the solid crust will be broken and raised up, and along this line of fracture the lava will rise above its general level elsewhere. This lava, thus lifted out of the general mass, in time solidifies, and forms the nucleus of a mountain. At successive periods the elevating force is renewed, and adds somewhat to the mountain mass before supplied. In this way the mountain is ultimately formed.
So far as observations have been made, the elevation of mountains seems not to be gradual, but spasmodic; and yet the elevating force probably accumulates constantly and uniformly. The repressing force consists of the weight of the strata above, which may be regarded as constant, and their strength, which is variable. When the elevating force becomes greater than both the repressing forces, the crust is fractured. The strength of the strata then becomes nothing, and the repressing force is the weight alone. The elastic mass below at once expands, and the requisite space is furnished by the uplifting of the strata along the line of fracture. As the ridge of lava which fills this additional space cools, it recloses, in part, the original fracture, and the repressing force again consists of the two elements,—weight and strength. There will therefore be no further elevation till the elevating force is again superior to these two forces. Thus the elevating force, though it may accumulate at a uniform rate, will manifest itself only at considerable intervals.
As the accumulation of lava along the line of fracture is the cause of the upheaval, every mountain must have a central granitic axis. Sometimes this granitic mass is pushed up through the fissure, as in the case of Mont Blanc. At other times, the stratified rock, which formed the original surface, is carried up so as to form the surface rock nearly to the top. In either case, the strata are lifted along the line of fracture, and left in an inclined position. In this position the older rocks are always found, wherever there has been any considerable amount of igneous disturbance.
In some instances, the additional space required by the expansion of the igneous mass below is furnished, not by the uplifting of the strata, but by their compression into folds between two lines of upheaval. The igneous rock is elevated but little above the stratified through which it had burst; but the stratified rocks have taken the undulatory form, and the widening of the igneous mass along the lines of fracture has compressed the undulations, until the planes of the strata have become vertical. [Fig. 82] will give an idea of the successive changes by which the vertical position of the strata has been produced.