From the examination of the contents of the stomach of a mammoth that was found frozen in a marsh it has been proved that the mammoth ate not only the buds, cones, and tender branches of trees, but the wood itself. Professor Owen shows that the mammoth was independent of the seasons on account of being able to live upon such a diet. The teeth of the mammoth, one of which weighs seventeen pounds, were well adapted to grinding food that was hard and tough.

The Cave-Bear. The cave-bear differed from the grizzly of to-day chiefly in its greater size and strength. An interesting story of the cave-bear is found in Stanley Waterloo’s The Story of Ab, Chapter XXII. Ernest Thompson Seton’s “Biography of a Grizzly,” in The Century Magazine, Vol. LIX., pp. 27-40, will be interesting to read in this connection.

The Sabre-toothed Felis (Machairodus latidens). This animal has usually been spoken of as the cave-tiger, but Professor W. Boyd Dawkins has shown that it was no more closely allied to the tigers than to other felines, and that “the very tempting name of ‘sabre-toothed tiger’ must therefore be given up as implying a relationship that does not exist. It differs from the genus Felis in the enormous development of the serrated upper canines, as well as the presence of a third lobe on the sectorial edge of the upper premolar.” It was a peculiarly destructive animal, its teeth being described as “uniting the power of a saw with that of a knife.” The canine tooth of this animal is the most perfect instrument for piercing and dividing flesh known. It belonged to the southern group of mammalia; and, as the winters became cold, it probably migrated each fall. Although it was never abundant it was much feared. Remains of similar animals have been found in the United States mingled with the bones of the mammoth.

Living Species. Of the living species there were present in mid-Pleistocene times, the brown bear, the grizzly bear, the wolf, the fox, the stag, the roe, the urus or the wild-ox, the aurochs or European bison, the hippopotamus, the horse, the wild boar, the beaver, the water rat, the lion, sometimes spoken of as the cave-lion and being the same species as the Felis leo of to-day, the lynx, the panther or leopard, the wild cat, the spotted hyena, the otter, the musk sheep, and the marmot. No animal was domesticated at this time.

The Urus. The urus, which is the representative of the wild cattle of this period, is the ancestor of our long-horned cattle, and should be distinguished from the short-horned cattle that appear in western Europe in the prehistoric period in a domesticated state. The wild bulls were formidable antagonists when enraged. It is thought by some that the Chillingham cattle are descendants of the urus. The color of the urus is not known. Some think that it was white, but others doubt that the species would have been able to survive with such a conspicuous covering. On account of their fear of the beasts of prey the wild cattle probably kept under cover of the trees during the day and went out to the grassy uplands only when darkness came on. The feeding grounds of the grass-eating animals determined the haunts of the beasts of prey. When wild cattle are attacked, the larger animals in the herd surround the younger and weaker so as to present a wall of horns to the assailant. This habit is not peculiar to wild cattle, but is quite characteristic of all grass-eating animals.

The Wild Horse. The steps in the evolution of the horse are stated so fully in the text that it is not necessary to repeat them here. Almost any good text in geology gives the same facts. It should be remembered that horses with more than one toe on each foot did not live when the Tree-dwellers did, but during earlier periods. The teacher who wishes to read further regarding the wild horse will find materials in the Century Dictionary under horse, in Chambers’ Encyclopedia, in H. N. Hutchinson’s Creatures of Other Days, in N. S. Shaler’s Domesticated Animals, and in McClure’s Magazine, Vol. 15, p. 512.

The Musk Sheep. The appearance of the musk sheep in western Europe during the mid-Pleistocene period marked the change that was beginning to take place in the climate. As the climate increased in severity all the arctic species came down from the north and occupied the land during the late Pleistocene period. The musk sheep is the most arctic in its habits of any of the herbivores, and at the present time is restricted to the high latitudes of North America. It thrives in desolate, treeless, barren grounds, not even being driven from its haunts by the extremest cold. It is closely allied to the species which is the parent of our domestic sheep, although that species did not appear in western Europe until prehistoric times. The musk sheep goes in herds of from twenty to thirty individuals, and when alarmed the animals huddle together like frightened sheep. Its food is grass, lichens, moss, and tender shoots of the willow and pine. It is much sought after for its skin, which makes a fine robe. It is sometimes known as the musk ox and occasionally as the musk bison.

Plant Life. The characteristic trees of the mid-Pleistocene period were evergreen. Of these the most abundant forms were the spruce, the fir, and the yew tree. The trees which shed their foliage were represented by the oak and the birch. The banks of rivers were shaded by thickets of laurel and by the sloe, the original form of the wild plum tree. The marshes afforded rich pastures for grass-eating animals as well as hiding-places, for they were partly covered by a heavy growth of alders. Wild peas, beans, stringy-rooted carrots, ruta-bagas, and turnips grew on the hillsides. The cabbage with its thick leaves, which had not yet developed into a head, was present. Seeds of grasses were available, but not used, for man had not yet learned to gather them and convert them into nourishing food. The teacher may be interested in referring to Candolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants and Darwin’s Plants and Animals Under Domestication.

[ SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS]

If possible read the entire book, including the preface, carefully before beginning the work. If in addition to this you can read parts of the following books and articles, do so; for in this way it will be easier to grasp the full significance of the work.