‘There is a Providence that shapes our ends,
Rough hew them how we may.’
Good results from sorrowful causes showed themselves often in unexpected ways and in unforeseen directions; for instance, the frequent theological disputations between Jews and Jews, and Christians and Christians, the very charges now and again brought against Jews and Jewish literature, turned the attention of Christian scholars to the study of Hebrew. Johann Reuchlin, one of the most important fore-runners of the German reformation, had a Hebrew teacher, one Jacob Loans, physician to the Emperor Frederic III. This Loans remained in favour with the Emperor, and also with his successor, Maximilian I., and it was probably owing to Jacob Loans’ influence that another member of the same family, Joseph Loans of Rosheim (born 1480, died 1555), was appointed as representative of the Jews at the Imperial Court. Joseph Loans defended his brethren whenever accusations were made against them, and became surety for them whenever that was required. The Jews called him their ‘great defender,’ though his efforts on their behalf were not always successful; the Emperor Maximilian being of a somewhat fickle turn of mind, and apt to take ‘full easily all impressions from below.’
2. Reuchlin and the Talmud.—It was in Reuchlin’s time that the Dominican monks, under the leadership of a man named Pfefferkorn, and in their hatred of the Jews, brought charges against the Talmud, and tried hard to induce the Emperor Maximilian to have all copies of it confiscated and burnt. Reuchlin, who was at the head of the Anti-Dominicans, defended the Talmud most energetically and successfully.‘I confess,’ he said on one occasion, ‘that I know very little of the contents of the Talmud, but the opposite party know just as much. How could one presume to give a judgment on mathematics if he knew nothing of the science? The Talmud ought not to be burnt, for so long as it exists a harmless subject is supplied for theological discussion. Destroy the Talmud, and Christian divines will take to disputing about their own religion, whether Paul was married, or if “Saint” Augustine was a monk!’ Thus, curiously enough, the Talmud divided the Christian camp into two parties, Humanists and Obscurants, as they were called, and in their disputes the Talmud found its safety.We have seen that it was not burnt that time.[55]
3. Another Jewish Influence, Elias Levitas.—Another successful Jewish teacher among Christian scholars of this period was Elias Levitas. He was born in 1468 at Neustadt, near Nuremburg. In 1504 we find him at Padua, teaching Hebrew. In 1509, when Padua was suffering from the effects of war and conquest, Levitas came to Rome. Here he taught the Cardinal Egidio de Viterbo, in whose house he lived ten years. George de Selve, Bishop of Lavour, was also one of his pupils, and it was probably in consequence of the bishop’s recommendation that Levitas was invited to come to France as professor of Hebrew. He must have felt himself greatly honoured when thus begged to come into a country in which no Jew was allowed to reside. And it is pleasant to know that he did not acceptthe invitation, but refused a distinction at the hand that dishonoured his race. In 1527, when Rome was abandoned to disorder and plunder, Elias Levitas went to Venice. In 1540 we find him employed as corrector in the printing office of one Fagius, and in 1549 he died. His literary career commenced with a copious editing of some grammatical works of the old masters, but he went on to write books himself on every topic connected with Hebrew grammar and lexicography. Many of these works were translated into Latin. Scholars find a treatise which he wrote on the Massorah, and on the origin of the vowel points, most interesting as well as valuable. He supplied his Jewish brethren also with a German translation of the Pentateuch, Megilloth, and Haphtaroth.
4. Some Jewish Results from the Invention of Printing.—The great zeal expended at this period on the study of Hebrew was soon noticeable in the extensive use made of the newly invented art of printing for the multiplying of copies of Hebrew works. The printing firm of Daniel Bomberg at Venice published the edition of the Biblia Rabbinica (i.e. Hebrew text with Chaldaic version called Targum, Massoretic notes, and various Hebrew commentaries) in 1516–17, and of the Talmud in 1520–26. And these were by no means the first Hebrew works that were printed.A commentary of Rashi’s[56] on the Pentateuch was published at Reggio in 1475, and in the same year the larger work, ‘Arba-Turim’ (Code of Laws), in Pieve di Sacco. The first Hebrew printing establishmentin Germany was founded by Gerson Soncino in Prague, 1513. The family of Soncino contributed much to the spread of printing among the Jews. Hebrew printing presses were soon set up at Fano, Pesaro, Mantua, and other places. The Jews showed from the first both zeal and skill in promoting the printing of Hebrew literature. Their rejoicing at the new invention was soon, however, damped by the introduction of a censorship for Jewish books, and Jewish authors and compilers had to see their pet works mutilated by priests and laymen who often were incapable of getting at the sense of what they examined. Renegade Jews occasionally officiated as censors, and added malice to ignorance. Printers and editors by degrees, foreseeing the passages which would meet with adverse censorship, would carefully prepare their text for examination by omissions. And so, after all, not very much harm was done. Complete copies could generally be found in States which were free from censorship, and scholars with good memories were often at hand to supply the missing links. In the present day books printed in Russia or imported into Russia are subject to censorship, and passages which to the censors appear objectionable are made illegible.
5. Influence of Printing on Kabbalistic Literature.—Through the art of printing, mystic works of a kabbalistic character were also multiplied and made accessible to the multitude. Reuchlin, in studying Hebrew, aimed especially at gaining a knowledge of the Kabbala, believing, in common with many Christians of that time, that in Kabbalamight be discovered many hidden mysteries of their own religion. The most important work of the kind is the ‘Zohar’ (Splendour), a volume of notes and reflections in the form of a running commentary on the Pentateuch. Tradition gives the honour of authorship of the Zohar to Rabbi Simeon ben Jochai (second century). Modern criticism, however, declares it to be the work of the Middle Ages, at least as regards certain parts of it. The Zohar contains many moral lessons, interspersed with Hagadic legends and philosophical theories. It has its attractions for contemplative minds, which like to indulge in imaginative and speculative thought. A certain Isaac Luria, born at Jerusalem, 1534, went into seclusion, and devoted his whole life to the study of the Zohar, and to fasting and praying. In this way he hoped to arrive at the right understanding of hidden truths. His labours, at any rate, seem to have resulted in no injury to his moral nature, since before his death he made solemn declaration of forgiveness to all and any who may have cheated him, and desired that full compensation might be made to all or any out of whom he may have made undue profit. Luria died of the plague in 1572. The Kabbala of Luria was introduced into Germany chiefly through a certain Rabbi Jesaja Hurwitz (born 1570). He wrote a book for his own children, called ‘The Two Tables of the Covenant’ (abridged Hebrew name [a]שְׁלָה]), but it was soon printed and published, and proved very popular. Besides containing a sort of commentary on each of the Haphtarahs, and many mystic and Midrashic expositions on Biblicaland Talmudic passages, the book gives rules for conduct on all occasions, and recommends mastery over passions and the regulation of appetites, in a frequently apt and happy fashion. Rabbi Hurwitz emigrated to Jerusalem, where, like many others, he met with cruel treatment at the hands of Mahomedan tyrants. He eventually went to Tiberias, where, in 1630, he died.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
IN NORTHERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE, BEFORE THE DAWN (continued).
1. A Group of Stars.—Through the dull clouds which so rarely lifted, little literary stars managed now and again to peep out, and to emit a small pale radiance. Their rays were not very brilliant, but they did what they could, and deserve an honourable mention. We will take them chronologically, though this will make a lady and a poetess last on our list.