15Each (active or passive, § [92]) transient formation exists in two modes, actual and contingent, and each of these has two aspects, punctual and durative; the durative always has accented reduplication. The actual mode envisages the occurrence as actually having taken place or taking place: in the punctual aspect the 20occurrence is viewed in its entirety, without regard to duration, and hence always as past: nagáral studied, learned; in the durative aspect of the actual the occurrence is viewed as a process going on in time, past or present: nagàáral was studying, is studying, used to study, studied (repeatedly), studies. The contingent 25mode views the occurrence as not having actually taken place: the punctual aspect views it as possible, hypothetical, or commanded: magáral should study, study (as command); the durative as future from the point of view of the past or present: magàáral will study, was going to study. The punctual contingent 30form is used not only in commands and hypothetical clauses, but in subordinate predications and complements generally, even, for instance, after naŋ (§ [192] f.), and often, in such constructions, in competition with actual forms. It is often used, further, after hindìʾ (§ [238]). When objectivized with aŋ, it expresses the possibility 35or circumstance of the occurrence: aŋ magáral a hypothetical studier, the circumstance that one might study.
The abstracts of action are much used in the construction described at § [274].
In addition to these more or less regular and systematized 40forms, there are various isolated formations, which will be discussed after the others.
A systematically arranged list of formations precedes the Index.
3. Description of formations.
I. Primary groups (zero, pag-, paŋ-).
A. Simple static forms.
(1) Root-words.
5341. The uses of root-words cover a wide range of meanings, the diversity of which is due to the various material meanings of the roots. The rough grouping here made is a matter of convenience; the speech-feeling seems not to distinguish classes of roots or diverse employments of root-words.
10While a complete list of the examples occurring in the Texts and illustrative sentences will be given for nearly all other formations, the root-words are so numerous that it will be expedient merely to refer to the Index.