Terry, P. W.—“The Reading Problem in Arithmetic”; Journal of Educational Psychology, 1921.
Thorndike, E. L.—The Psychology of Arithmetic; The Macmillan Co., New York, 1921.
Uhl, W. L.—“The Use of Standardized Material in Arithmetic for Diagnosing Pupils’ Methods of Work”; Elementary School Journal, 1917.
CHAPTER VII
Drawing
I. THE VARIOUS KINDS OF DRAWING
Manuel, who has made a careful psychological study of talent in drawing, defines drawing as follows: “The term drawing designates a process of causing, by means of pencil, pen, brush, or other instrument, certain lines or areas, or both, to appear on a given surface.” This definition we may accept, if we add that the lines and areas are intended or can be interpreted to signify something. We should not agree, for instance, that the lines and areas which are caused to appear on the ground by the scratching of a fowl should be included within the definition.
Having been thus defined, drawings may be classified into many kinds, in accordance with the technique employed and the meaning conveyed. These kinds are (1) copying, (2) representative drawing, (3) analytical or diagrammatic drawing, (4) impressionistic drawing, (5) symbolic drawing, and (6) caricature. This classification is exclusive of other forms of graphic or representative expression, such as painting, sculpture, and paper-cutting (used in the art of cutting silhouettes).
These various kinds of presentations differ as to the psychophysical equipment constituting talent for them. It is therefore impossible, as psychological study has proved, to discuss talent for drawing, without specifying what kind of drawing is under consideration. Talent for painting, sculpture, and cutting silhouettes has been little studied, so that we are not in position to discuss these at the present time, either as processes in themselves or as related to drawing.
The term copying is self-explanatory. By representative drawing is meant a drawing having visual realism, which “looks like” that from which it is drawn. Analytical (diagrammatic) drawing is logical. It may violate features essential to visual realism, stressing only aspects from certain points of view, or abstracting a general principle. For instance, the plan for the ground-floor of a house, or a schema of arterial circulation, would be analytical. Mechanical drawing comes under this category, as does also, in a sense, conventionalized drawing, for in conventionalized drawing some general principle or pattern is abstracted from concrete instances, and is made the basis of the design. A conventionalized bird does not look like any particular bird ever seen by anyone, but, on the other hand, it looks like all birds. It is a non-existent, composite, typical bird. Impressionistic drawing conveys an idea without much attention to visual realism. A curve stands for a cloud, two vertical lines suggest trees, a few zigzag marks indicate grass and flowers. In symbolic drawing one thing is drawn to represent another thing, as a crown is drawn to represent royalty. Symbolic drawing does not, perhaps, deserve separate classification, in a study of abilities, but for the present it seems best to differentiate it. To originate symbolic drawings may call for capacities not included in the other forms of graphic presentation. Finally, caricature is drawing that catches and exaggerates individual peculiarities, most often with a result which is humorous or satirical. The art of cartooning depends very largely on caricature and symbolism for its effect. Cartoons interpret life. The successful cartoonist, therefore, combines talent for drawing with a high degree of general intelligence.