Upon the occasion of my visit to their reservation, I was accompanied by two Indians respectively of the Seneca and Cayuga tribes, both of whom spoke English intelligibly. I asked the Seneca what was the dialect they had chosen to be their language when the Iroquois were assembled together. He replied, that it was the Cayuga, because they believed it was the original language which had been spoken by all of them, and the six nations at the Grand River had learnt it sufficiently to enable them to understand what was said when they met at the Council house, but, for all ordinary purposes, and amongst themselves, each nation spoke its own dialect. With reference to this subject of variations in language, it is evident that amongst the North American Indians, who are scattered over such a large extent of country, the differences in the spoken tongues of the tribes must, in many instances, be caused by the fact of there being no written language, and of their being divided into races, kept apart by wars. It is therefore to be expected that great changes would occur within comparatively short intervals of time. With tribes originally belonging to one nation, these would rapidly become formed into dialects according to the manner in which the tribes moved into other hunting grounds, and became settled into distinct tribal groups. But after making all due allowances for these conditions, it still remains difficult to understand how so great a number of languages have become established amongst a comparatively small population. At no time, since the discovery of America, have the total numbers of Indians within the regions now forming the United States, exceeded five hundred thousand men, women and children. In 1829, it was estimated that the Indian population slightly exceeded three hundred and thirteen thousand. In 1850, according to the census, the total numbers were four hundred thousand.[44]
The most remarkable fact with regard to the Iroquois tribes is that, after having had one original language, they should have become unintelligible to each other, although they lived in close proximity. Their territories were within the limits now occupied by the State of New York. With the Dakotas and Chippewas, whose territories are adjacent, the conditions are different, for these languages have no relation with each other, and the most careful researches have failed to trace any connection between them. The Chippewa dialect belongs to the group of languages classified as Algonquin. Dialects belonging to that original stock are spoken by the Chippewas, Ottawas, Illinois, Shawnees, and all the New England tribes. The Dakota language is at present known to be spoken in thirteen principal dialects, and several sub-divisions. The Iroquois is exclusively confined to the six dialects spoken by the six nations assembled in their reservations.
The history of the dispersion of this race seems to establish the fact that Indian languages can, within a comparatively short period, be so greatly altered as to become practically distinct. This has happened with a nation whose separated tribes have always remained at peace with each other and have united for common defence, or for the prosecution of a war against powerful enemies. With savage nations whose original languages are essentially dissimilar, the constant wars which take place between them possibly introduce elements of change which would influence very considerably the spoken dialects of the opposing tribes. It was a frequent custom after the conclusion of hostilities for the conquerors to incorporate in their tribe the women and children of those whom they had vanquished. Thus a new dialect would be introduced amongst them, and the two languages would necessarily become blended. A succession of wars would cause a continuance of variations of language, and thus it would gradually come to pass that dialects would be formed not only greatly differing from each other, but most difficult to trace to any positive origin.
The Iroquois were not only exceptional in having a fixed system of confederation which enabled them to combine their forces in a manner which increased their fighting strength, but they also had special customs with regard to their chiefs. It was established amongst them as an unalterable regulation that their hereditary descent should be in the female line. This unusual system has attracted much attention. When I was at their reservation I asked my Indian companions for an explanation of the manner in which this was carried into effect in ordinary practice, for it seemed to involve difficulties with regard to intermarriage between the respective nations, and I wished to hear some direct evidence upon that subject.
The Seneca said: “Our children always take the rank of their mothers and join their tribe; thus I, a Seneca, not a chief, married a Cayuga woman the daughter of a chief and my son is therefore a Cayuga and will be a chief of the Cayugas.” Another Indian said: “I live with the Cayugas and my father was a Cayuga, but I am an Onondaga because my mother was an Onondaga woman.”
Whilst I was talking with these men, and passing through the villages of the Oneidas, Senecas and Tuscaroras, I observed that there was no church or any building set apart for religious purposes and I asked the Seneca how this happened, as in the other Iroquois reservations that I had seen, the church usually was in a prominent position near the centre of the settlement. He said that I was amongst men who were called Pagan Indians, and that the Grand River Iroquois were divided into two classes, Christians and Pagans. The former were settled upon a part of the lands a few miles distant. He also told me that they always kept themselves distinct from the converts, and were careful to follow their ancient belief and maintain, as far as possible, the ceremonies and religious customs of their ancestors.
I asked a Cayuga, who had joined us, and who was one of the leading men of his tribe, if he would tell me to what extent, and in what form, their Pagan worship was practised. I also mentioned, that I wished for information with regard to the Iroquois belief in a Supreme Being. It was ascertained by the Jesuit missionaries, that a belief in one over-ruling Power was found to exist among them, and in this respect they differed from all other American Indians, with whom it seemed to be conclusively ascertained, that their worship only consisted of propitiations of the various powers that they believed had influence for good or evil in connection with matters around them. It was found by the priests, that the chief obstacle in enabling the savages to comprehend the meaning of their teaching, was the want of capacity in the minds of the Indians to understand the nature of a Power who controlled all movements of the heavens and earth. It was consequently interesting to meet an Indian who could intelligently explain this unusual peculiarity of the Iroquois belief.
This Cayuga, in reply to my questions, said, “We all believe in the Great Spirit whom we call How-wan-ni-yu, and we have four feasts in every year made to him. Those at the New Year and at the Harvest time are the greatest. We meet at the Long House[45] dressed, as was the custom in former times, with skins and feathers, and have our faces painted. In the middle of the room we place our offerings of wheat, fruit, tobacco, and flesh, according to what we can give, and the season of the year. Round this pile of offerings we have a dance. After this is over, our principal chief makes a speech and tells us about the goodness and nature of How-wan-ni-yu. Then we have another dance, after which another chief makes a speech, and so on, until all the speeches are finished. Then all the offerings are divided amongst us and the meeting ends.”
I asked the Indians if they had any other kind of worship or prayer. They said they had nothing more, and that the dance to How-wan-ni-yu was not considered by them to be a prayer, but was meant as an acknowledgment of the goodness of the harvest. I found a difficulty in obtaining from these Iroquois any definite opinion with regard to their ideas of the nature of How-wan-ni-yu, but at last the Cayuga said abruptly: “We consider him to be the maker of all things upon the earth, and we know nothing more about the matter.” There were, originally, various ceremonies performed by the tribes in connection with the appearance of the first new moon of the year, and there were also tribal dances after any success in hunting or in war, but these are no longer performed. One of the new moon ceremonies was the sacrifice of a dog by fire, and the ashes were scattered over the ground as an offering.
Upon leaving the reservation, it was not possible to feel otherwise than regret that it had become the fate of the descendants of a powerful nation of warriors to be penned within these restricted limits. Men, women and children, were leading aimless and useless lives. They were pensioners upon Governments which would gladly escape from the duties and expenses which the existence of these Indians demand, and who are, in many cases, victims to the temptations offered to them by the habits of modern civilisation.[46]