[13] Ismael Hamet, Les Musulmans français du Nord de l'Afrique (Paris, 1906).
[14] Quoted by Dr. Perron in his work L'Islamisme (Paris, 1877).
[15] The Mollahs are the Moslem clergy, though they do not exactly correspond to the clergy of Christendom. Mohammed was averse to anything like a priesthood, and Islam makes no legal provision for an ordained priestly class or caste, as is the case in Christianity, Judaism, Brahmanism, and other religions. Theoretically any Moslem can conduct religious services. As time passed, however, a class of men developed who were learned in Moslem theology and law. These ultimately became practically priests, though theoretically they should be regarded as theological lawyers. There also developed religious orders of dervishes, etc.; but primitive Islam knew nothing of them.
[16] From the article by Léon Cahun in Lavisse et Rambeaud, Histoire Générale, Vol. XII., p. 498. This article gives an excellent general survey of the intellectual development of the Moslem world in the nineteenth century.
[17] Especially his best-known book, The Spirit of Islam (London, 1891).
[18] S. Khuda Bukhsh, Essays: Indian and Islamic, pp. 20, 24, 284. (London, 1912).
[19] 1856 to 1878.
[20] For the liberal movement among the Russian Tartars, see Arminius Vambéry, Western Culture in Eastern Lands (London, 1906).
[21] Ismael Hamet, Les Musulmans français du Nord de l'Afrique, p. 268 (Paris, 1906).
[22] S. Khuda Bukhsh, op. cit., p. 241.