The Evolution of Modern Orchestration

by Louis Adolphe Coerne

IV.

In turning to the works of Boieldieu (1775-1834), we find therein a refreshing example of naïveté, spontaneous originality, and flowing melody. Italian tendencies are noticeable, but the style remains pure and distinctly French. Though "La Dame Blanche" does not contain the attributes of profound scholarship, it satisfies in full the requirements of refined and poetic French comedy. Schumann regarded some of Boieldieu's creations as the representative comic operas of the world. His orchestra is not large and it is rarely used in its entire strength. The key-note is dainty scoring; the singing can always be distinctly heard, and although few novel effects of instrumentation are to be noted, variety and contrast of tone are constantly to be met with. The accompaniment is ever appropriate, and especially the clarinet and horns receive characteristic treatment. Moderation in the use of the brass was carried to such an extent that trombones are frequently omitted altogether, and even in "La Dame Blanche" only one was employed. In one opera not even trumpets and kettle-drums are to be found.

The founder of the lyric drama in the modern sense was Auber (1782-1871). The pillars of modern lyric drama are genuine dramatic expression, varied resources, and extensive proportions. Add to these charming melody, sparkling instrumentation and piquant coloring, and we have the sum total of Auber's creations. He was, perhaps, the most typically French composer that ever lived, and yet his orchestration is not that of an innovator. He accepted the already existing French and Italian characteristics of instrumentation, but adapted them to the needs of his poetic instincts. The functions of his orchestra are essentially those of accompaniment, and the dramatic situations are lightly sketched rather than elaborately portrayed. And this lightness of touch, together with grace and elegance, is already to be found in "La Muette de Portici," as well as in the more popular "Fra Diavolo."

In spite of the fact that Auber's orchestra presents nothing actually new, the charm of his instrumentation has exerted great influence upon that art in France. When the full orchestra is employed, the effect is sonorous without being noisy, ever clear yet scintillating. For more subdued effects, Auber was especially happy in the choice of mixed tonal tints, such as the reduplication, by a piccolo flute in the octave, of a melody given to one of the wood-instruments. Moreover, he was the first to employ the piccolo in piano passages. And whether reference be made to his use of soft chords for the trombones, or to his dainty triangle effects,—these are but a suggestion of the many characteristic insignia that distinguished his sterling achievements.

The operas of Hérold (1791) contain strong expressive and dramatic attributes. His form and instrumentation show German rather than Italian influence, modified withal by unquestionable French coloring. The impress of "Don Juan" and of "Freischütz" is especially noticeable in the overture to "Zampa," his representative work; three principal themes from the opera itself are more or less scientifically developed, and the manner of writing for certain wind instruments like the clarinet in some ways resembles that of Weber. Although Hérold's orchestration does not embody that transparency and that grace which characterize the scores of Auber, it is more compact, and his accompaniments conform to the demands of the dramatic situation. He occupied himself also with chamber music and concert overtures, which are superior in form to many similar efforts of prominent contemporary French writers, even though they are insignificant in comparison with German models.

The works of Halévy (1799) present a perplexing composite of genuine art and sensational trivialities. Frequently carried away by desire for pomp and effervescent personal glory, he nevertheless gave the art of dramatic scoring a powerful impetus toward modern methods. His instrumentation is often like Meyerbeer's, and Rossinian tendencies are apparent as well. Nevertheless, his pages are imbued with his own individuality. Each instrument received characteristic treatment when not used in massed harmonic combinations. The strings were employed with much skill and variety, as exemplified, for instance, by phrases for violins alone in four parts, or for solo 'cellos in five parts. The former idea bears the germ of Wagner's subsequent ethereal string passages, whereas the latter corresponds to Rossini's familiar 'cello scoring in "Guillaume Tell." The wood-wind played an important part as dramatic interpreter, with especial attention to the expressive characteristics of the English horn and the clarinet. Above all, Halévy was an untiring advocate in behalf of improving and supplementing both the variety and functions of the brass, and was strongly in support of the newly invented instruments of Sax. As components of the orchestra proper, they were not used aggressively, although, of course, when they appeared as an independent cohort upon the stage itself, their united efforts inclined toward the bombastic. Halévy was among the first to employ a second couplet of valve horns in addition to the customary natural horns, and the manner of writing for them displays a marked departure from previous usage. Besides absorbing into the orchestra proper different varieties of sax-horns and especially the sax-tuba, he employed at times as many as eight trumpets. A part for a soprano trombone is likewise to be found in one of his scores. "La Juive" is the embodiment of Halévy's higher ideals and novel orchestral combinations, and among other interesting details of instrumentation, the employment of two English horns, the trombone solo in the fourth act, and the semi-military band on the stage will readily be recalled.

V.

Brief mention is due to the "historic school" which found its first exponent in Spontini (1774-1851). The tenets of this school were in sympathetic accord with the general desire for pomp attendant upon the ascendency of Napoleonic imperialism. And Spontini's masterpiece "La Vestale" entirely satisfied these demands. For in spite of many glaring defects, it is a worthy example of superb dramatic power. In this work, a new style of orchestration was inaugurated, one that has been more or less imitated by all French writers since his time. Spontini transplanted into serious opera a principle with which already Piccini and Paesiello had experimented in their lighter operas, in that, for the description of certain picturesque episodes, the orchestra appears as chief exponent, the voice as secondary.

Entirely new was the amalgamation of the whole orchestra into one mighty organism by means of doubling and redoubling each part, similar to the practice of adding the four- and two-foot stops in organ playing. Each of the three choirs is harmonically complete by itself; being absorbed into the general Melos, it is, of course, impossible for the ear to analyze the combined tone-color. Such massive tonal edifices are the embodiment of unity and sonority, but there is danger of monotony, and, as Gevaërt remarks, this method of orchestration was subsequently abused by Rossini. Spontini's style embodies much that is German, and his mastery of brilliant effects is unrivalled. And although he frequently lowered the standard of his works by a craving for ostentation, the details are carefully worked out and the orchestration is rich and manly.