The Evolution of Modern Orchestration

by Louis Adolphe Coerne

Spohr (1784-1859). The fruits of Spohr's activity as a composer present a rather peculiar mixture of progressive zeal and conventional mannerism. He was not alive to the true greatness of Beethoven's genius, neither can he be compared with Weber as a dramatic writer. On the other hand, Spohr was instrumental in awakening a keener interest for the supernatural, and he aimed to illustrate certain definite ideas by means of musical expression. This trait is especially conspicuous in his symphonies; and these entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders of programmatic orchestral music. Again, Spohr was one of the greatest violinists of his day, and as the natural result, his writing for strings was highly effective. Consequently his double string quartets, his octets, nonets, etc., are especially valued in musical literature. Spohr contributed to the evolution of orchestration proper but little that was actually new. But here again the development of violin technique stimulated at least a freer and more elaborate manner of employing the strings. Prout suggests that his orchestration resembles to some extent that of Mendelssohn, in that the equilibrium is admirably adjusted; and the general color-scheme is further enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass. In minor details of instrumentation, Spohr made some interesting experiments similar to those of Berlioz, such as the introduction of a number of kettle-drums into the orchestra. Prout also refers to the earthquake chorus in "Calvary" where six drums are played upon by two performers, and rolls in seconds, thirds, and fifths for two drums together are to be found. But as a whole, his reputation is due chiefly to his great achievements as a violinist and to the incentive he gave to romanticism in music.

II.

Weber[37] (1786-1826). Spohr's efforts in behalf of programmatic music are by no means to be undervalued; at the same time it must be borne in mind that even his finest works are eclipsed by those of Weber by virtue of the latter's marvellous imagination, unerring judgment in the choice of appropriate means of expression, and huge technique in orchestration. Weber began his career during what might be called the transition period in modern art. It would be here out of place to enlarge upon the general conditions attendant upon the awakening of the so-called "storm and stress" agitation in Germany. Weber's artistic development was, however, so inseparably allied with this movement that at least a brief review thereof would appear indispensable before proceeding to an examination of his orchestral works.

Langhans sums up the mental and emotional conditions of this transition period by saying that "in place of the general subject-matter with which the lyric poetry of the preceding century had been satisfied, the subjective feelings of the poet now came to the front, and the essential nature of lyric poetry, a boundless submersion into the innermost life of the soul, could under these circumstances attain full prominence." Germany was at this time greatly interested in the writings of Byron and of Jean Paul Richter. Romantic poetry in turn began to influence both dramatic and lyric music. Indications of departure from the elevated and reflective style of the great classical composers were apparent. Time-honored rules and traditions began to be neglected. Individualism asserted itself. The general tendency of the epoch embodied a certain mystical element—a return to the chivalrous atmosphere of mediæval romance. And this tendency was in harmony with the very nature of Weber's imaginative trend. In turn, this unfettered realm of imagination, peopled with sylphs, nymphs, fairies, contained latent and most propitious possibilities for progressive orchestration. Weber's instrumentation was founded upon that of Beethoven, but it was none the less distinctive and original. It was above all dramatic. His true greatness lay in the power of orchestral portrayal in the more vivid scenes of his operas, and in his operatic overtures. His two symphonies are comparatively weak. Though deficient in artistic education, Weber's romantic disposition and rare appreciation for instrumental effects enabled him to become one of the greatest modern orchestral writers, and his scoring is a model for all later composers. He stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with him a new period began. Moreover, he was the creator of modern German romantic opera. As Kapellmeister at Dresden he was instrumental in counteracting the influence of Italian music which was still in vogue at the Court, and he helped to mould the tastes of the public in favor of native dramatic and orchestral music. "Der Freischütz" is the representative of ideal national opera. Here the orchestration is admirably adapted to depict and intensify the scenes and situations. It abounds in striking contrasts that are ever consistent with the demands of what has been called the "local" coloring. Episodes requiring sombre and mysterious tonal tints are again offset by the purest of lyrics and by powerful dramatic climaxes. "Oberon," on the other hand, abounds in more peaceful melodic and harmonic fancies, poetic revery, and dainty scoring. Though the effectiveness of "Euryanthe" is marred by reason of its insipid libretto, it is nevertheless the most important of Weber's operas, considered from a musical standpoint. Its continuous music and the interweaving of recitative and melody directly point the way to Wagner. Weber displayed superb power in the development of his overtures. In the second volume of his "Music and Musicians," Wagner declared that Weber might be said to have originated a novel form of overture or "dramatic fantasy," of which Wagner considered the "Oberon" overture to be the best example.

In turning to the details of Weber's instrumentation it is found that no new instruments were introduced. Beauty and novelty were attained rather by inherent regard for suitable application of tonal color and by the discovery of new combinations. Although Weber, like Spohr, did not venerate Beethoven as he should have done, it was not possible for him to improve upon the great master's string writing. Of course certain novel effects are to be found, such as the subdivision of the violins soli into numerous parts, the viola accompaniment to Annette's ballad,[38] and the use of the same instrument as bass to "Leise, leise"[39] in "Der Freischütz."

But perhaps no other composer contributed more to the independence of the wood-wind.[40] Weber was exceedingly modern in the use of small combinations. In order to obtain a rare and fairy-like effect in "Oberon," the first flute and first clarinet give out the melody; the second flute plays arpeggios as does likewise the second clarinet, though in contrary motion; a solo horn is employed as bass. The opening bars of Annette's song in "Der Freischütz" may be cited as containing a good example for the oboe as does also the accompaniment to Kilian's song for the bassoon. But it was quite particularly the clarinet for which Weber showed especial predilection. Beautiful phrases for the clarinet are to be found in the Allegro of the overture to "Der Freischütz"[41] as well as in the overture to "Oberon"; and the characteristics of the instrument in its entire range are effectively displayed in the introduction to Adolar's aria in the second act of "Euryanthe." Moreover, he was the first to discover the tragic possibilities of the chalumeau range,[42] as exemplified by the held notes in the lowest part of the instrument accompanying the entries of Zamiel in "Der Freischütz."

Next to the clarinet, the horns[43] received especial consideration from Weber, and acquired greater freedom and individuality, being brought into requisition not alone for mellow cantilene and sustained harmonies, but also as the exponents of jubilant outbursts or of gloomy whisperings. Many admirable illustrations will readily be recalled, such as the passages for horns soli in the introduction of the "Freischütz" overture,[44] the trio for horns in the Romance in "Preciosa," and the horn accompaniment to the Mermaid's Song in "Oberon." With Weber, the use of four horns and three trombones became the rule, whereas with Beethoven it had been the exception.

All things considered, it is evident that modern opera and modern orchestration are immensely indebted to Weber, and his influence has made itself more or less felt upon the writings of all subsequent dramatic and orchestral composers.

III.

Two contemporaries of Weber who followed in his footsteps as composers of romantic opera were Konradin Kreutzer (1780) and Marschner (1795). Kreutzer's "Nachtlager von Granada" has become widely known, but of the two men, Marschner is by far the more important. He is popularly known as the heir of Weber, and has been called the connecting link between Weber and Wagner. Himself stimulated and influenced by his friend, Weber, he in turn helped to mould the earlier works of Wagner. His masterpiece, "Hans Heiling," abounds in natural melodic expression, truthful interpretation and dramatic energy. Neither Kreutzer nor Marschner can be cited as having contributed anything substantially new to instrumentation, but they at least helped to strengthen the foundations of modern orchestration as initiated by Weber.