The Evolution of Modern Orchestration

by Louis Adolphe Coerne

16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8 double-basses.

6 harps (exceptionally in 6 individual parts).

1 or 2 piccolo flutes; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn; 3 clarinets (at times a small clarinet); 1 bass-clarinet; 3 bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.

4 horns (often 8); 3 trumpets; 1 bass-trumpet; 3 trombones; 1 contrabass-trombone; 4 tubas (tenor and bass); 1 contrabass-tuba.

2 pair of kettle-drums; instruments of percussion.

The Tetralogy presents not only the culmination of Wagner's poetic ideas and philosophical aspirations, but the final transformation in orchestral resources as well. The première of "Das Rheingold" took place in 1869 in Munich, followed in 1876 by the first performance of the entire "Ring" at Bayreuth. The music of the "Ring" is so inseparably welded to the drama that, apart from certain striking exceptions, much of it loses its significance when performed as "absolute music" away from the stage. At first sight the requisition made for so mighty an aggregation of instruments must have been indeed terrifying to a "Herrn Kapellmeister" of the old operatic school, but closer inspection of the orchestration reveals the fact that the glories of this noble tableau are obtained by masterful contrasts of detached little groups of uniform tone-color, rather than by cumulative tone quality and quantity. Space forbids more than a cursory glance at a very few of these novel characteristics in details of instrumentation. "Das Rheingold" shows, on the whole, great reserve in the simultaneous employment of large forces. For instance, the scene of the Rhine maidens is accompanied by the most transparent orchestration. Many variations in the use of unmixed tone-color could be cited, such as three oboes and English horn by themselves; English horn with three bassoons; horns alone, or with bassoons, or with bass-tuba. One of the most striking examples is to be found in the fourth scene where the chord of the diminished seventh is assigned to the lower notes of three clarinets and a bass-clarinet. The same consistent use of homogeneous quartets marks the deployment of the brass. The tubas appear entirely alone, as do also the four trumpets in combination with the four trombones. The final scene presents one of the exceptional instances of six independent parts for harps. The first act of "Die Walküre" is, in the opinion of the present writer, the most perfect specimen of dramatic writing in the literature of music.[57] Here again, the avoidance of massive scoring is particularly to be noted throughout almost the entire act. And what other instruments could have attained that maximum intensity of expression that characterizes the deployment of five solo violoncellos[58] as interpreters of tender longing and suppressed emotion? Some of the most impressive effects are obtained by means of such comparatively simple combinations as one solo oboe supported by two flutes, a clarinet and a bassoon, further assisted by a second fragmentary melodic theme in the 'cellos. Instances of independent phrases for three clarinets and bass-clarinet are again to be found, and in the third act, the horns are employed in six real parts. A large majority of effects and combinations that are conspicuous in "Das Rheingold" and "Die Walküre" naturally reappear in "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung." Further distinctive traits in "Siegfried" are the manifold division of violins and violoncellos, the extensive arpeggio passages for violas, the employment of viola harmonics, the important rôle assigned to the double-basses, the composite tonal tint resulting from a reunion of the clarinet quartet and four solo 'cellos, and the use of bass- and double-bass tubas for impersonating the dragon. Another prominent illustration of sonorous yet transparent scoring is seen in the scintillating Forest Music in the second act and again in "Götterdämmerung," to which a striking contrast is subsequently afforded by the solemn and massive harmonies of the tubas in Siegfried's Funeral March. Nor should the prominent function of kettle-drums throughout the entire Tetralogy be overlooked.

In comparing the distribution of parts in the first, second, and third groups, we have seen that in the first of these the orchestra is normal, though the balance of the brass is improved. The augmentation of the second group is effected by employing three instruments in each family of the wood-wind. The third group, however, embodies a readjustment of both wood and brass into families of four. This requires a strong body of strings; incidentally, more harps are employed, whereas both the number and variety of instruments of percussion are increased. In addition to four trumpets and four trombones there are as many as eight horns and five tubas. Not only are these massed instruments never used simultaneously, but their latent powers are further intended to be modified by Wagner's plan for a partially concealed orchestra as at Bayreuth. To the brass is primarily entrusted the important function of contrasting three fundamental conceptions in the Tetralogy. Horns are symbolic of the poetic, of distant visions, of reminiscences, of imagination, of conscience. Trumpets and trombones represent a world of light midst the gods and heroes. Tubas portray material force, human suffering, fate.

GROUP IV. DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NÜRNBERG; PARSIFAL.

To classify these two works under one heading might at first sight appear incongruous, for apart from the fact that some dozen years separate the respective periods of their creation, the difference between them in style and objective is as that of the antipodes. The comic features and satirical purpose of the one bear absolutely no relation to the mystical and devotional tone of the other. In two respects, however, they have some points of affinity. The orchestration of both is more like that of "Tristan" than of the "Ring," and the harmonies are, to a certain extent, the adventitious corollary of intricate polyphonic voice-leading. This is, of course, particularly pronounced in "Parsifal," but it is in evidence in "Die Meistersinger" as well. Both works prove that the exceptional orchestral forces required for "Der Ring des Nibelungen" are by no means necessary to obtain sonority, richness, exhaustless variety and supreme dramatic intensity. Again, none of Wagner's dramas can rival "Die Meistersinger" in musical power, whereas "Parsifal," as the exponent of Wagner's religious views and his attitude toward Christianity, is unsurpassed for nobility of subject and dignity of treatment. With the performance of "Parsifal" at Bayreuth in 1882, Wagner ended his stupendous lifework. His death followed barely seven months later, but he had lived long enough to witness the attainment of his ambitions and ideals.