The Bronze Epoch.

[CHAPTER I.]
The Discovery of Metals—Various Reasons suggested for explainingthe origin of Bronze in the West—The Invention of Bronze—AFoundry during the Bronze Epoch—Permanent and ItinerantFoundries existing during the Bronze Epoch—Did the Knowledge ofMetals take its Rise in Europe owing to the Progress ofCivilisation, or was it a Foreign Importation?205
[CHAPTER II.]
The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing theHistory of the Bronze Epoch—The Lacustrine Settlements ofSwitzerland—Enumeration and Classification of them—Their Modeof Construction—Workmanship and Position of the Piles—Shape andSize of the Huts—Population—Instruments of Stone, Bone, andStag's Horn—Pottery—Clothing—Food—Fauna—Domestic Animals215
[CHAPTER III.]
Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia andCarniola, Pomerania, France, and England—The Crannoges ofIreland227
[CHAPTER IV.]
Palustrine Habitations or Marsh-Villages—Surveys made by MM.Strobel and Pigorini of the Terramares of Tuscany—TheTerramares of Brazil232
[CHAPTER V.]
Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the variousLacustrine Settlements in Europe, enabling us to becomeacquainted with the Manners and Customs of Man during the BronzeEpoch240
[CHAPTER VI.]
Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch—TheInvention of Glass—Invention of Weaving258
[CHAPTER VII.]
The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch—Swords, Spears andDaggers—The Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles,France, Switzerland and Italy—Did the Man of the Bronze Epochentertain any religious or superstitious Belief?271
[CHAPTER VIII.]
Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the BronzeEpoch—Characteristics of the Human Race during the same Period284

II.

The Iron Epoch.

[CHAPTER I.]
Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch—Preparation of Ironin Pre-historic Times—Discovery of Silver and Lead—Earthenwaremade on the Potter's Wheel—Invention of Coined Money297
[CHAPTER II.]
Weapons—Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery—The Tombs ofHallstadt and the Plateau of La Somma—The Lake-Settlements ofSwitzerland—Human Sacrifices—Type of Man during the IronEpoch—Commencement of the Historic Era312
[PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA]333
[CONCLUSION]343

[LIST OF PLATES.]

FIG. PAGE
[AFamily of the Stone Age (Frontispiece).]
1.[Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, in 1863].18
2.[Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (The Borreby Skull)].27
3.[Skull of the Gorilla].28
4.[Skull of the Orang-Outang].ib.
5.[Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape].29
6.[Skull of the Macacus Baboon].ib.
7.[The Production of Fire (whole page engraving)].
8.[Dendrites or Crystallisations found on the Surface of wrought Flints].46
9.[Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul, which containedthe wrought Flints found by Boucher de Perthes].47
10.[Hatchet of the Almond-shaped type from the Valley of the Somme].48
11.[Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the so-called Almond-shaped type].49
12.[Wrought Flint (Moustier type)].ib.
13.[Flint Scraper].50
14.[Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near Abbeville].ib.
15.[Flint Core or Nucleus].51
16.[Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole page engraving)].
17.[The First Potter (whole page engraving)].
18.[Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in the Gravel at Amiens].54
19.[Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the Carboniferous Limestone,before the hollowing out of Valleys by Diluvial Waters].56
20.[Theoretical Section of the same Vein of Clay converted into aCavern, after the hollowing out of Valleys by Diluvial Waters].57
21.[The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria].59
22.[Section of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac].62
23.[Flint Knife, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac].63
24.[Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac].ib.
25.[Series of Perforated Discs of the Cardium Shell, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac].64
26.[Fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac].ib.
27.[Upper Molar of a Bison found in the Ashes of the Fire-Hearth of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac].65
28.[Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac].66
29.[Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac].ib.
30.[Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn bearing two Series oftransversal Lines and Notches, probably used for numeration].67
31.[Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole page engraving)].
32.[Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young Cave-Bear].69
33.[Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of Aurignac].70
34.[Head of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, found in the Cave of Aurignac].ib.
35.[Head of a great Stag (Megaceros hibernicus), found in the Cave of Aurignac].71
36.[Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone, found in the Cave of Massat].75
37.[Portion of the Skull of an Individual belonging to the Epochof the Great Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave of Engis].80
38.[Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull].ib.
39.[Man of the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)].
40.[Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed Habitation of Manduring the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)].
41.[A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)].
42.[Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer Skins, found inthe Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord)].92
43.[Bone Needle for Sewing].ib.
44.[The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to be used as an Ornament].93
45.[Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's Ear].ib.
46.[Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord)].95
47.[Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife)].96
48.[Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)].ib.
49.[Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)].97
50.[Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper)].ib.
51.[Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel].98
52.[The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)].
53.[Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn].99
54.[Arrow of Reindeer Horn with Double Barbs].ib.
55.[Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer Horn].100
56.[Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Stiletto?)].ib.
57.[Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Needle?)].ib.
58.[Spoon of Reindeer Horn].101
59.[Knuckle-bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a hole and used as a Whistle].102
60.[Staff of authority, in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Périgord].ib.
61.[Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn].ib.
62.[A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel(?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord)].103
63.[Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz (Belgium)].104
64.[Sketch of a Mammoth graven on a Slab of Ivory].106
65.[Hilt of a Dagger carved in the Shape of a Reindeer].107
66.[Representation of a Stag drawn on a Stag's Horn].108
67.[Representation of some large Herbivorous Animal on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn].ib.
68.[Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)].
69.[Representation of an Animal sketched on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn].109
70.[Fragment of a Slab of Schist bearing the representation ofsome Animal, and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies].ib.
71.[A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn carved in the Shape of an Animal's Head].110
72.[Staff of Authority, on which are graven Representations of a Man, two Horses, and a Fish].111
73.[Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Édouard Dupont].114
74.[Skull of an Old Man, found in a Rock-shelter at Bruniquel].115
75.[A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)].
76.[Man of the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page engraving)].
77.[Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks].134
78.[Fishing-net with wide Meshes].136
79.[Stone Weight used for sinking the Fishing-nets].ib.
80.[Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page engraving)].
81.[Flint Knife from one of the Danish Beds].138
82.[Nucleus off which Knives are flaked].ib.
83.[Flint Hatchet from one of the Danish Beds].ib.
84.[Flint Scraper from one of the Danish Beds].ib.
85.[Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints].139
86.[Weight to sink Fishing-nets].ib.
87.[Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch].140
88.[Double-edged Axe].ib.
89.[Danish Axe-hammer drilled for handle].141
90.[Ditto].ib.
91.[Spear-head from Denmark].142
92.[Ditto].ib.
93.[Toothed Spear-head of Flint].143
94.[Flint Poniard from Denmark ].ib.
95.[Type of the Danish Arrow-head ].ib.
96.[Another Type of Arrow-head].ib.
97.[Arrow-head].144
98.[Arrow-head from Denmark].ib.
99.[Flint Chisel from Denmark].ib.
100.[Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits].145
101.[Another Stone Saw from Denmark].ib.
102.[Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age, from Denmark].ib.
103.[Bone Comb from Denmark].146
104.[Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber].ib.
105.[Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from the Workshop ofGrand-Pressigny].148
106.[Polisher from Grand-Pressigny, both faces being shown].150
107.[The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of Flints (whole page engraving)].
108.[Polisher found by M. Leguay].154
109.[Spear-head from Spiennes].158
110.[Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of Saint-Germain].159
111.[Polished Flint Hatchet with a Sheath of Stag's Horn fitted for a Handle].161
112.[Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath having an OakHandle, from Boucher de Perthes' Illustration].162
113.[Hatchet Handle made of Oak].163
114.[Stag's-horn Sheath open at each end, so as to receive two Hatchets].ib.
115.[Polished Flint Hatchet, from Belgium, fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath].ib.
116.[Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after Boucher de Perthes)].164
117.[Ditto].ib.
118.[Ditto].165
119.[Flint Tool in a Bone Handle].166
120.[Flint Tool with Bone Handle].ib.
121.[Ornamented Bone Handle].ib.
122.[Necklace made of Boars' Tusks longitudinally divided].167
123.[Flint Knife from the Peat Bogs near Antwerp].168
124.[Primitive Corn-mill].170
125.[The Art of Bread Making in the Stone Age (whole page engraving)].
126.[The Earliest Navigators (whole page engraving)].
127.[The Earliest regular Conflicts between Men of the Stone Age;or, The Entrenched Camp of Furfooz (whole page engraving)].
128.[Flint Arrow-head from Civita-Nova (Italy)].180
129.[The Borreby Skull].182
130.[Danish Dolmen].185
131.[Dolmen at Assies (department of Lot)].ib.
132.[Dolmen at Connéré (Marne)].186
133.[Vertical Section of the Dolmen of Lockmariaker,in Brittany. In the Museum of Saint-Germain].ib.
134.[Tumulus-Dolmen at Gavr'inis (Morbihan)].187
135.[A Portion of the Dolmen of Gavr'inis].ib.
136.[General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb].188
137.[Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur].ib.
138.[Passage-Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan)].189
139.[Passage-Tomb, the so-called Table de César, at Lockmariaker (Morbihan)].ib.
140.[A Danish Tumulus or chambered Sepulchre].190
141.[Usual Shape of a Menhir].191
142.[The Rows of Menhirs at Carnac].ib.
143.[Dolmen with a Circuit of Stones (Cromlech), in the Province of Constantine].192
144.[Group of Danish Cromlechs].ib.
145.[Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the Stone Age].194
146.[A Tumulus of the Polished Stone Epoch (whole page engraving)].
147.[A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)].
148.[Section of the Ténevière of Hauterive].220
149.[A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)].
150.[Vertical Section of a Crannoge in the Ardakillin Lake].230
151.[Vertical Section of the Marniera of Castione].233
152.[Floor of the Marniera of Castione].234
153.[Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the Marniera of Castione].ib.
154.[The Chase during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)].
155.[Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].241
156.[Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].241
157.[Flint Hammer fitted with a Stag's-horn Handle].242
158.[Stone Hatchet with Double Handle of Wood and Stag's Horn].ib.
159, 160.[Serpentine Hatchet-Hammersfrom the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].243
161.[Another Hatchet-hammer from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].ib.
162.[Flint Saw fitted into a Piece of Stag's Horn].244
163.[Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].ib.
164.[Various Shapes of Flint Arrow-heads from the LacustrineSettlements of Switzerland].ib.
165.[Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen].245
166.[Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen].ib.
167.[Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of String].ib.
168.[Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].246
169.[Ditto].ib.
170.[Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].ib.
171.[Bone Needle].ib.
172.[Pick-axe of Stag's Horn].247
173.[Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].ib.
174.[Ditto].ib.
175.[Vessel made of Stag's Horn].ib.
176.[Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].249
177.[Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the LacustrineHabitations of Switzerland].ib.
178.[Socketed Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations].ib.
179.[Knife Hatchet (front and side view) from the Lacustrine Habitations].ib.
180.[Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze].250
181.[Hexagonal Hammer].ib.
182.[Knife with a Tang to fit into a Handle, from the LacustrineSettlements of Switzerland].ib.
183.[Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].251
184.[Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux].ib.
185.[Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].252
186.[Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].ib.
187.[Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the Swiss Lakes].253
188.[Ditto].ib.
189.[Hair-pin with Cylindrical Head].ib.
190.[Hair-pin with Curled Head].ib.
191.[Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].254
192.[Another Bronze Bracelet].255
193.[Bronze Ring].ib.
194.[Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].256
195.[Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].ib.
196.[Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland].ib.
197.[Another Ornamental Ring].ib.
198.[Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from the LacustrineHabitations of Switzerland].259
199.[Earthen Vessel placed on its Support].ib.
200.[Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle].259
201.[Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].260
202.[Ditto].ib.
203.[Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].262
204.[The First Weaver (whole page engraving)].
205.[Spindle-whorls, made of Baked Clay, found in the LacustrineSettlements of Switzerland].263
206.[Principal Designs for the Ornamentation of Pottery duringthe Bronze Epoch].264
207.[The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze Epoch(whole page engraving)].
208.[A Feast during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)].
209.[Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchâtel].272
210.[Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].ib.
211.[Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].273
212.[Bronze Arrow-head, found in a Lacustrine Settlement of Switzerland].ib.
213.[Scandinavian Sword].274
214.[Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword].ib.
215.[Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet].ib.
216.[Another Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet].ib.
217.[Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch].275
218.[Ditto].ib.
219.[Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch].276
220.[Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in 1861, in a Tomb in Denmark].277
221.[Woollen Shawl, found in the same Tomb].ib.
222.[Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb].278
223.[First Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb].ib.
224.[Second Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb].ib.
225.[Bronze Comb, found in the same Tomb].ib.
226.[Warriors during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)].
227.[Bronze Hatchet Mould, found in Ireland].279
228.[Stone Crescent, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].280
229.[Skull found at Meilen, Front View].289
230.[Skull found at Meilen, Profile View].ib.
231.[Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron (whole page engraving)].
232.[Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel].310
233.[Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade)].313
234.[Ditto].ib.
235.[Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze Handle and Iron Blade)].314
236.[Ditto].ib.
237.[Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving)].
238.[A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, from the Tombs of Hallstadt].315
239.[A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of Hallstadt].316
240.[Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt].317
241.[Ditto].ib.
242.[Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt].ib.
243.[Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt].317
244.[Warriors of the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving)].
245, 246.[Fore-arm encircled with Bracelets, found in the Tombs of Belleville (Savoy)].319
247.[Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].321
248.[Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].ib.
249.[Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].322
250.[Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes].323
251.[Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel)].324
252.[The Chase during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving)].
253.[Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of the Lakes of Switzerland].325
254.[Sickle].ib.
255.[Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland].326
256.[Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss Boatmen duringthe Iron Epoch].ib.
257.[Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel].ib.
258.[Fibula, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel].327
259.[Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel].328
260.[Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel].ib.
261.[Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel].ib.
262.[Razor].329
263.[Agriculture during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving)].