The old and the new Peru

by Marie Robinson Wright

In the frequent changes of government that occurred during the first ten years of the republic, some of the administrations were of short duration and of little historical importance. President Gamarra was despotic and arbitrary, and aroused the opposition of the more liberal members of Congress, who, led by the deputy from Tacna, Don Francisco de Paula Gonzalez Vigil, openly protested on the floor of the House against the unconstitutional conduct of the chief executive. It was the beginning of a persistent struggle to overcome militarism and to establish the government of Peru on a basis more consistent with the ideals of a modern republic. President Gamarra was in turn succeeded, in 1833, by President Orbegoso, whose administration was disturbed by continuous revolts in consequence of the irregularity of his election, and the jealousy of rival candidates. On the 23rd of January, 1835, General Salaverry, commander of the garrison of Callao, who had been promoted to the rank of brigadier-general for his services in support of President Orbegoso during previous revolts, suddenly declared himself against the government, which he said was dishonored by illegal arrests and acts of injustice. He was a high-minded, though impetuous, young officer, and he won many followers, being able to secure command of the government, which he directed with good purpose and ability; his authority was recognized for several months in all the republic except Arequipa, where Orbegoso had his stronghold. The latter sought the assistance of President Santa Cruz of Bolivia, and the overthrow of Salaverry was accomplished after a series of engagements in which the Bolivian army was repeatedly checked; the battle of Socabaya, which took place on February 7, 1836, brought the struggle to an end, Salaverry being taken prisoner and condemned to be shot. This sentence was carried into effect in the central plaza of Arequipa ten days later. General Santa Cruz then proclaimed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, which was divided into three states, northern and southern Peru and Bolivia; Orbegoso was made president of northern Peru and General Herrera of southern Peru, while General Santa Cruz became supreme director of the confederation with the powers of a dictator.

DON MANUEL PARDO. THE FIRST CIVIL PRESIDENT OF PERU.

The Peru-Bolivian Confederation, inaugurated on the 1st of May, 1837, was not only unpopular in Peru and Bolivia, but it led to war with Chile. The Chilean invasion has been called the Nemesis of Salaverry, as the Chilean ships were full of exiled Peruvians, glad to have this opportunity to fight against Santa Cruz, the author of Salaverry’s defeat and death. Orbegoso deserted Santa Cruz and retired to Guayaquil. The Chilean forces were commanded by General Bulnes, who defeated the army of Santa Cruz in the battle of Yungay, in 1839, the “Supreme Protector” making his escape to Guayaquil, whence he sailed to France. The confederation was dissolved by General Santa Cruz prior to his leaving the country, and General Gamarra was proclaimed president of the republic for a second time. His ambition led him to invade Bolivia, where he was defeated and killed, in the battle of Ingavi in 1841. During his absence from Peru, Colonel Manuel Ignacio Vivanco seized the reins of government, declaring Gamarra’s election illegal. He was deposed by General Castilla, Gamarra’s commander-in-chief.

On the death of President Gamarra, Don Manuel Menendez assumed supreme power, but his election was disputed by La Fuente and Vivanco, who supported General Vidal for the presidency, while, in the meantime, General Torrico took more violent measures and deposed Menendez, declaring himself president. The greatest confusion followed, Vidal taking the field against Torrico, who was defeated. General Vidal, however, was more desirous of restoring order and peace than covetous of political honors, and in order to avoid further dissension, he resigned in favor of President Menendez; though a few days later his action was nullified by that of a new faction that declared in favor of General Vivanco, who assumed the government on the 8th of April, 1844. The unsettled political condition was a natural consequence of President Gamarra’s death in Bolivia, and it continued until a leader appeared who possessed the resolution and strength necessary to establish order and authority.

General Ramón Castilla, who was elected president of Peru in 1845, accomplished a great deal in promoting the welfare of his country. Possessing extraordinary administrative ability, he reorganized the various branches of public service, suppressed the taxation of the Indians, definitely abolished slavery, advanced education and undertook the construction of public works of great importance. During this administration, the first railways in Peru were built, between Lima and Callao (in 1848), also between Lima and Chorillos, and the first telegraphic service was established. The finances of the government were regulated by subjecting the national expenditures to an estimate sanctioned by Congress. Municipal improvements were encouraged throughout the republic, and the prefects of the various departments vied with one another in the construction of good roads, commodious public buildings and other progressive enterprises. Steam navigation, which had been initiated between Valparaiso and Callao in 1840, was extended to Panamá, the service being increased. The navy was reorganized and five new war vessels, operated by steam, were added to the squadron. The wealth of the republic increased in consequence of a great demand for the guano of the Chincha Islands, which became a source of immense revenue, and the government was thus enabled to arrange for the payment of the interest on the national debt:—a loan of one million two hundred thousand pounds sterling had been made in London in 1822, and another of six hundred thousand pounds in 1825, both at six per cent, which with the accumulated interest made a debt of nearly four million pounds. Negotiations were concluded by which the interest on this sum could be paid regularly.

THE MORRO OF ARICA.

After six years of peaceful government President Castilla was succeeded by President Echenique, whose administration lasted from 1851 to 1855, when he was deposed and President Castilla was reëlected. During his second term, this indefatigable statesman continued to devote his efforts to the improvement of the public service. Especial attention was given to the construction and discipline of the prisons. The foundations of the present penitentiary of Lima were laid in accordance with plans prepared and submitted by Dr. Mariano Paz Soldan, who had the work in charge. When, in 1862, the reins of government were passed to his successor, Grand Marshal Don Miguel San Román, President Castilla retired from office with everything to his credit that a patriot who has rendered good service to his country may claim. Three years later he became president of the Senate, at seventy years of age. By the terms of the constitution of 1860, the presidential period, which formerly lasted for six years, was reduced to four, the president not being permitted henceforth to succeed himself by reëlection for a second term. President San Román, son of the martyred patriot of Umachiri, lived only a few months after his election, and was succeeded by Vice-President Pezet, during whose administration a conflict arose with Spain, with dire consequences to the prestige of the president. The Chincha Islands were seized by a Spanish fleet on the pretext of guaranteeing certain unjust claims, and President Pezet, who found himself unable to offer resistance, was obliged to make a settlement with Spain which was so unfair to Peru that it called forth vigorous protest and led to a revolution. The second vice-president, General Pedro Diez Canseco and Colonel Mariano Ignacio Prado were the leaders of the movement against President Pezet, who, rather than plunge his country into civil war, resigned office, Colonel Prado being proclaimed dictator in November, 1865.

One of the first acts of Dictator Prado was to form an alliance with Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile to combat the aggressive designs of Spain. After an engagement between the allies and the Spaniards at Abtao, in the Chiloe archipelago, the latter proceeded to Valparaiso, which they bombarded, thence going on to Callao, where after a five hours’ fight they were defeated and obliged to withdraw, never to return. Chile expressed the greatest admiration for the bravery and patriotism shown by the Peruvians, the Chilean minister in Lima writing to his government in praise of “the noble and valiant nation.” The city of Santiago presented President Prado with a sword, in token of appreciation. Though the administration of Dictator Prado was liberal and his authority mild, the spirit of the nation was now opposed to an unconstitutional government, and in 1868 he abdicated in favor of General Canseco, who immediately convoked Congress to elect a new president. The choice fell on Colonel José Balta. His administration is noted for the extensive improvements made in public works during that period, from 1868 to 1872.