| [CHAPTER I] | |
|---|---|
| Philip’s failure, and the reasons for it—His birth and infancy—Hisappearance and character—His education by Siliceo andZuñiga—The emperor meets his son—The consolidation ofauthority in Spain—Suggestions for marriage with Jeanned’Albret—Philip made Regent of Spain—The emperor’s instructionsto his son—His system of government—Characterof his councillors—Philip’s marriage with Maria of Portugal—Birthof Don Carlos and death of the princess—Doña Isabelde Osorio—Philip in his domestic relations—Project for securingto Philip the imperial crown—The suzerainty of Spainover Italy—Philip’s voyage through Germany | [Page 1] |
| [CHAPTER II] | |
| The union of the Low Countries to Spain—The Italian suzerainty—Theeffects thereof—Etiquette of the House of Burgundyadopted in Spain—Ruy Gomez—Philip’s voyage—His unpopularitywith Germans and Flemings—Fresh proposals forhis marriage—The family compact for the imperial succession—Defectionof Maurice of Saxony—War with France—Treatyof Passau—Defeat of the emperor at Metz | [20] |
| [CHAPTER III] | |
| Proposal to marry Philip to Queen Mary of England—The need foralliance with England—The negotiations of Renard—Oppositionof France—Unpopularity of the match in England—Philip’svoyage to England—His affability—His first interviewwith Mary—The marriage—Philip made King of Naples—Failureof the objects of the marriage—Philip’s policy in England—Pole’smission—Philip and the persecution of Catholicsin England—Philip’s disappointment and departure | [30] |
| [CHAPTER IV] | |
| Philip in favour of a moderate policy in England—His attitudetowards religion generally—He requests armed aid from Englandagainst the French—The emperor’s embarrassments inItaly—Alba made Philip’s viceroy in Italy—Factions in Philip’scourt—Ruy Gomez and Alba—The emperor’s abdication—Philip’s changed position—His attitude towards the papacy—TheSpanish Church—Pope Paul IV. and the Spaniards inItaly—Excommunication of Philip—Invasion of Rome byAlba—Philip’s second visit to England | [43] |
| [CHAPTER V] | |
| French intrigue against Mary—England at war with France—Battleof St. Quintin—Philip’s tardiness—The English contingent—Theloss of Calais—Feria goes to England—Hisnegotiations—Condition of England—The English fleet usedby Philip—Philip and Elizabeth—Negotiations for peace—Deathof Mary—Plans for Elizabeth’s marriage—Peace ofCateau Cambresis—Philip’s policy in England | [53] |
| [CHAPTER VI] | |
| Philip’s plan for a French alliance—His marriage with Elizabethde Valois—Philip’s embarrassments in the Netherlands—DeGranvelle—Philip’s departure from Flanders—Condition ofaffairs in Spain—The Spanish Church—Death of Paul IV.—TheInquisition—Bartolomé de Carranza—Philip’s arrival androutine in Spain—The auto de fé at Valladolid | [64] |
| [CHAPTER VII] | |
| Arrival of Elizabeth de Valois in Spain—Her influence overPhilip—Position of affairs in France—War with England—Philip’sattitude towards France—Death of Francis II.—Spanishdisaster at Los Gelves—Position of Spain in theMediterranean | [79] |
| [CHAPTER VIII] | |
| Don Carlos—His relations with Elizabeth de Valois—French intriguesfor his marriage—His illness—The Cortes of Aragon—Jeanned’Albret and Henry of Navarre—The Council of Trentand the Inquisition—Philip and the pope—Renewed struggleswith the Turks—Siege of Malta | [88] |
| [CHAPTER IX] | |
| Troubles in the Netherlands—Granvelle’s unpopularity—Williamof Orange and Egmont—Their resignation and protest—Margaretof Parma—Assembly of the Chapter of the Golden Fleece—Riotsat Valenciennes—Discontent of the Flemish nobles—Theyretire from government—Granvelle’s dismissal—Themaladministration of the States—Egmont’s mission to Spain—Philip’spolicy in the States—The Beggars—Orange’s action—Philipdetermines to exterminate heresy in the States—Philip’sprojected voyage thither | [99] |
| [CHAPTER X] | |
| Renewed contest between Philip and the papacy—Condition of DonCarlos—His arrest and imprisonment—Philip’s explanations—Carlos’last illness and death—Death of Elizabeth de Valois—Theinterviews of Bayonne and the Catholic League—Catharinede Medici—Philip face to face with Protestantism—Philipand the Moriscos—Rising of the Moriscos—Deza at Granada—DonJuan of Austria—Expulsion of the Moriscos fromAndalucia | [115] |
| [CHAPTER XI] | |
| Philip and England—Elizabeth seizes his treasure—Spanish plotsagainst her—Philip and the northern rebellion—The excommunicationof Elizabeth—Ridolfi’s plot—Philip’s hesitancy—Prohibitionof English trade with Spain—Its futility—Alba’sretirement from Flanders—Philip’s responsibility for Alba’sproceedings—The tenth penny—Philip’s disapproval—Orange’sapproaches to the French | [136] |
| [CHAPTER XII] | |
| Philip’s fourth marriage—The killing of Montigny—Anne ofAustria—Philip’s domestic life—His industry—The Escorial—Hispatronage of art—His character—Renewed war with theTurks—Don Juan commands the Spanish force—The victoryof Lepanto—Don Juan’s great projects—Antonio Perez | [153] |
| [CHAPTER XIII] | |
| The Spanish troops in Flanders—Don Juan sent to Flanders—Hisprojects for invading England—Mutiny of the Spanish troopsin Flanders—The Spanish fury—Evacuation of Flanders bythe Spanish troops—Perez’s plot against Don Juan—Themurder of Escobedo—Don Juan seizes Namur—Renewal of thewar—The battle of Gemblours—Desperation of Don Juan—Hisdeath—Alexander Farnese | [168] |
| [CHAPTER XIV] | |
| Philip’s ineffectual action against Elizabeth—The Desmond rebellion—Philip’sconquest of Portugal—Recall of Alba andGranvelle to Philip’s councils—Don Antonio, Prior of O Crato—Deathof Anne of Austria—Philip in Portugal—Flight ofAntonio—His reception in England and France—The Duke ofAlençon—Philip and Mary Stuart—James Stuart—Fresh proposalsof the Scottish Catholics to Philip—Philip and Granvelle’sviews with regard to England—Lennox and the Jesuitsmismanage the plot—Philip’s claim to the English crown—Expulsionof Mendoza from England—The English exiles urgePhilip to invade England—Sixtus V.—Intrigues in Rome—TheBabington plot | [182] |
| [CHAPTER XV] | |
| The Infanta to be Queen of England—Approaches of the ScottishCatholic lords to Philip—Execution of Mary Stuart—Intriguesfor the English succession—Drake’s expedition to Cadiz—Thepeace negotiations with Farnese—Preparations for the Armada—Sailingof the Armada from Lisbon—Its return to Vigo—MedinaSidonia advises its abandonment—Its strength—Engagementswith the English—Panic at Calais—Final defeat—Causesof the disaster—Philip’s reception of the news | [202] |
| [CHAPTER XVI] | |
| Don Antonio in England—Catharine’s support of him—Strozzi’sdefeat at St. Michaels—Philip’s patronage of assassination—Philipand the League—Renewal of the war of religion inFrance—The murder of Guise—Imprisonment of Antonio Perezand the Princess of Eboli—Perez’s treachery—His escape toAragon—The fueros of Aragon—Philip proceeds against Perez—Perezarrested by the Inquisition of Aragon—Rising inZaragoza—Perez’s escape—Suppression of the Aragonese | [223] |
| [CHAPTER XVII] | |
| Philip and Mayenne—The English attack upon Lisbon—Assassinationof Henry III.—Philip’s plans in France—The war of theLeague—The battle of Ivry—Philip’s attitude towards Mayenne—Farneseenters France—Relief of Paris—Retirement of Farnese—Philipchanges his plans in France—Farnese’s secondcampaign—Henry IV. goes to mass—Enters Paris as king—Exitof the Spaniards | [237] |
| [CHAPTER XVIII] | |
| Blighting influence of Philip’s system on his officers—Effects ofPhilip’s routine on the administration—Social condition ofSpain and the colonies—Dr. Lopez and Antonio Perez—PhilipII. and Tyrone’s rebellion—The English sacking of Cadiz—Philip’sresignation—His last illness and death—Results of hislife—Causes of the decadence of the Spanish power | [249] |
| [Genealogical Table showing Philip’s Claim to theEnglish Crown] | [263] |
| [Appendix] | [265] |
CHAPTER I
Philip’s failure, and the reasons for it—His birth and infancy—His appearance and character—His education by Siliceo and Zuñiga—The emperor meets his son—The consolidation of authority in Spain—Suggestions for marriage with Jeanne d’Albret—Philip made Regent of Spain—The emperor’s instructions to his son—His system of government—Character of his councillors—Philip’s marriage with Maria of Portugal—Birth of Don Carlos and death of the princess—Doña Isabel de Osorio—Philip in his domestic relations—Project for securing to Philip the imperial crown—The suzerainty of Spain over Italy—Philip’s voyage through Germany.
FOR three hundred years a bitter controversy has raged around the actions of Philip II. of Spain. Until our own times no attempt even had been made to write his life-history from an impartial point of view. He had been alternately deified and execrated, until through the mists of time and prejudice he loomed rather as the permanent embodiment of a system than as an individual man swayed by changing circumstances and controlled by human frailties.
The more recent histories of his reign—the works of English, American, German, and French scholars—have treated their subject with fuller knowledge and broader sympathies, but they have necessarily been to a large extent histories of the great events which convulsed Europe for fifty years at the most critical period of modern times. The space to be occupied by the present work will not admit of this treatment of the subject. The purpose is therefore to consider Philip mainly as a statesman, in relation to the important problems with which he had to deal, rather than to write a connected account of the occurrences of a long reign. It will be necessary for us to try to penetrate the objects he aimed at and the influences, personal and exterior, which ruled him, and to seek the reasons for his failure. For he did fail utterly. In spite of very considerable powers of mind, of a long lifetime of incessant toil, of deep-laid plans, and vast ambitions, his record is one continued series of defeats and disappointments; and in exchange for the greatest heritage that Christendom had ever seen, with the apparently assured prospect of universal domination which opened before him at his birth, he closed his dying eyes upon dominions distracted and ruined beyond all recovery, a bankrupt State, a dwindled prestige, and a defeated cause. He had devoted his life to the task of establishing the universal supremacy of Catholicism in the political interests of Spain, and he was hopelessly beaten.
The reasons for his defeat will be seen in the course of the present work to have been partly personal and partly circumstantial. The causes of both these sets of reasons were laid at periods long anterior to Philip’s birth.
The first of the great misfortunes of Spain was an event which at the time looked full of bright promise, namely, the marriage of Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabel, to Philip of Austria, son of the Emperor Maximilian. This marriage eventually burdened the King of Spain with the German dominions of the House of Austria, the imperial crown, with its suzerainty over Italy, the duchy of Milan, and, above all, the rich inheritance of the House of Burgundy, the Franche Comté, Holland, and the Netherlands. Even before this the crown of Aragon had been weakened rather than strengthened by the possession of Sicily and Naples, which latter brought it into inimical contact with France, and also necessitated the assertion and defence of its rights as a Mediterranean Power in constant rivalry with Turks and Algerians. This had been bad, but the vast and scattered territories of Charles V. cursed Spain with a foreign policy in every corner of Europe. In his Austrian dominions the emperor was the outpost of Christianity against the Turk, the bulwark which restrained the Moslem flood from swamping eastern Europe. His galleys were those which were to keep the Mediterranean a Christian sea. Flanders and the Franche Comté gave him a long flat frontier conterminous with France, whose jealous eyes had been fixed covetously for centuries on the fine harbours and flourishing towns of the Low Countries.
Most of these interests were of very secondary importance to Spain itself. The country had only quite recently been unified; the vast new dominions which had fallen under its sway in America might well have monopolised its activity for centuries to come. The geographical position of the Iberian peninsula itself practically isolated it from the other countries of Europe, and rendered it unnecessary for it to take any part in the discords that prevailed over the rest of the continent; whilst the recent religious struggles with the Moors in Spain had consolidated Catholic Christianity in the country, and prevented the reformed doctrines from obtaining any footing there. Spain indeed, alone and aloof, with a fertile soil, fine harbours, and a well-disposed population, seemed destined to enjoy a career of activity, prosperity, and peace. But the possession of Flanders brought it into constant rivalry with France, and necessitated a close alliance with England, whilst the imperial connection dragged it into ceaseless wars with the Turks, and, above all, with the rising power of Protestantism, which ultimately proved its ruin. Philip, who succeeded to this thorny inheritance, was, on the other hand, bounded and isolated by mental limitations as irremovable as the Pyrenees which shut in his native land. As King of Spain alone, having only local problems to deal with, modest, cautious, painstaking, and just, he might have been a happy and successful—even a great—monarch, but as leader of the conservative forces of Christendom he was in a position for which his gifts unfitted him.
He was the offspring of the marriage of first cousins, both his parents being grandchildren of cunning, avaricious Ferdinand, and of Isabel the Catholic, whose undoubted genius was accompanied by high-strung religious exaltation, which would now be considered neurotic. Her daughter, Juana the Mad, Philip’s grandmother, passed a long lifetime in melancholy torpor. In Charles V. the tainted blood was mingled with the gross appetites and heavy frames of the burly Hapsburgs. The strength and power of resistance inherited from them enabled him, until middle age only, to second his vast mental power with his indomitable bodily energy. But no sooner was the elasticity of early manhood gone than he too sank into despairing lethargy and religious mysticism. Philip’s mother, the Empress Isabel, came from the same stock, and was the offspring of several generations of consanguineous marriages. The curse which afflicted Philip’s progenitors, and was transmitted with augmented horror to his descendants, could not be expected to pass over Philip himself; and the explanation of his attitude towards the political events of his time must often be sought in the hereditary gloom which fell upon him, and in the unshakable belief that he was in some sort a junior partner with Providence, specially destined to link his mundane fortunes with the higher interests of religion. His slow laboriousness, his indomitable patience, his marble serenity, all seem to have been imitated, perhaps unconsciously, from the relentless, resistless action of divine forces.