Whether the Romans made use of time-indications from the stars before they borrowed them from the Greeks is uncertain; in any case they had their own names for some constellations:—vesperugo, iubar = lucifer, the evening star, septentriones or iugulae, the Great Bear, vergiliae, the Pleiades. Suculae, the Hyades, and canicula, the Dog-star, are translations of the corresponding Greek names[486].
At a later period the risings and settings of the stars, together with the climatic phenomena accompanying them or believed to accompany them, were brought into a calendar, which was then arranged according to the signs of the zodiac, or later according to the months of the Julian or Egyptian solar year. The Greek lunisolar year was unsuitable for the purpose, since it varied in reference to the sun and the stars. How both were adjusted to practical needs is shewn by the remains of two stone calendars found at Milet. On the stone are inscribed the risings and settings of the stars, arranged according to the signs of the zodiac: by the side of these are holes into which little tablets containing the days of the lunisolar calendar could be fitted, these tablets being arranged according to the relation of every lunisolar year to the solar one[487].
The Arabians also carefully observed the stars, and many of their proverbs couple the risings of the stars with natural events[488]. Since these constellations are the so-called lunar stations their use here is not primitive, but must have been added on to a primitive usage. The Pleiades were observed throughout their course, and about most of the positions which they take up mnemonic verses were made. Mohammed swears by the setting Pleiades in the 53rd chapter of the Koran.
We return once more to the primitive peoples. It may be well first to show by a few examples how far they were acquainted with the stars and saw in them images of terrestrial things. The Chukchee give names to the most important constellations. Among divinities are reckoned ‘the Motionless Star’ or ‘the Nail-star’ or ‘the Pole-stuck Star’, the Pole-star, ‘the Front Head and the Rear Head’, Arcturus and Vega, and pchittin, a part of Aquilo. Orion is an archer with a crooked back, who has shot a copper arrow, Aldebaran, against a ‘group of women’, the Pleiades. His wife is Leo, ‘the Standing Woman’. Capella is a reindeer-buck which is tied behind the sledge of a man driving with two reindeer; a fox approaches from the side. Six of the stars of the Great Bear are men throwing with slings, the seventh is a fox gnawing at a pair of antlers. The Twins are two elks running from two hunters who are driving two reindeer-teams. Corona is the paw of the Polar Bear. Delphinus is a seal, Cassiopeia represents five reindeer-bucks standing in the middle of a river[489].
The Eskimos of Greenland have a good knowledge of the stars. The Great Bear is a reindeer, or the little stool on which they fasten their ropes and harpoons, Aldebaran is the eye of the bull, the twins are the breast-bone of the heavens, the belt of Orion is composed of three ‘scattered ones’—Greenlanders who were taken up into the sky and could not find their way back—Sirius has a man’s name, the Pleiades are to be regarded as baying hounds with a bear among them, Cygnus as three kayaks which have been out seal-hunting. Venus is the follower or man-at-arms of the sun. When one planet crosses the path of another it is a wife and a concubine who have one another by the hair, or else it is a visit of two stars[490]. By the Ammasalik names are given to Vega (‘the Foot of the Lamp’), which, like the moon, is the brother of the sun, to the Great Bear, the Pleiades (‘the Barkers’), the belt of Orion, and Aldebaran; Jupiter is the mother of the sun[491]. Among the Konyag of the island of Kodiak, off the south coast of Alaska, two months are named after the risings of the Pleiades and Orion respectively[492]. Of the Thlinkit it is said that few constellations or stars appear to have been named by them: those to which names are given are ‘the Great Dipper’, which by night used to serve as a guide, the Pleiades (sculpin), ‘Three-men-in-a-line’ (probably the belt of Orion), Venus as the morning star (‘Morning-round-thing’), and Jupiter (?) as the evening star (‘Marten-month’ or ‘Marten-moon’). If the morning star comes up above a mountain south-east of Sitka, it means bad weather, if well over in the east, good weather[493]. Otherwise the North American Indians have paid less attention to the stars: but it is exaggerated to say[494] that the sum-total of their astronomical knowledge was the ability to point to the Pole-star from which they took their way when they travelled at night, which however they did unwillingly. The tribes of Pennsylvania had names for a few stars, and observed their motions: the Pole-star shewed them by night the direction they must take in the morning[495]. The Omaha called the Pole-star ‘the Not-moving-star’, the Pleiades were called by an old name, ‘the Deer’s Head’; this name, which had a religious significance, was not commonly used, the popular name being ‘Little-duck’s-foot’. The Great Bear was ‘the Litter’, Venus ‘Big-Star’[496]. For the Klamath are mentioned only the three stars in the belt of Orion[497], for the Biloxi and Ofo ‘Stars-all-heads’ (?) (three large stars near the Pleiades), ‘Stars-in-circle’ (the Pleiades), and ‘Big Star’, the morning star[498]. The Luiseño of southern California name the most important stars. The associated stars form much larger groups than those common among us. The stars were chiefs among the first people. Those most frequently mentioned are Antares and Altair. Arcturus is the right hand of Antares, it rises before the latter and announces his coming, the other stars around Antares are his suite. Other chiefs are Spica, Fomalhaut, and the Pole-star. Orion and the Pleiades are always mentioned together; the latter were seven sisters, pursued by Aldebaran. The Diegueño constellations are altogether different from the Luiseño, and are based upon totally different ideas: it has not been possible however to obtain an accurate account of them[499]. Of the natives of Guadeloupe it was reported at their discovery:—In other places they merely reckon the day by the sun and the night by the moon; these women however reckoned by other stars, and said that when the Great Bear rose or a certain star stood in the north it was time to do this or that[500].
The Indians of South America have observed the stars in much greater detail. The descriptions of von den Steinen are well known, in particular for the Bakairi of Central Brazil. Orion is a large frame on which manioc is dried, the larger stars are the tops of posts, Sirius is the end of a great cross-beam supporting the frame from the side. The Pleiades are a heap of grains of meal that have fallen out at the side: a larger mass, ‘the father of the heap’, is Aldebaran. Capella is a little capsule such as the Bakairi wear in their ears, two other stars of Auriga are the ear-rings of the Kayabi, the feathers of which are stuck backwards. One star, probably Procyon, is an ear-piercer, or more properly the hole bored in the ear. Castor and Pollux are the holes of a great flute. Canopus has no name. The Southern Cross is a bird-snare on a twig, and the two large stars of the Centaur represent two canes belonging to it. In the snare a mutum cavallo (crax) was taken, and this could be seen in a dark patch of the Milky Way close beside. A Sokko heron with a little basket full of fish corresponds approximately to the stars of Pisces and Argo. The Scorpion is a drag-net for children, the Milky Way is a huge drum-stick, and the holes in it (the dark spots) are observed and explained by stories. The Paressi have a name for the Southern Cross, above which they see an ostrich whose figure is to be recognised in a dark spot of the Milky Way: other animals are also found in the sky. To the Bororo the Southern Cross represents the toes of a great ostrich, the Centaur a leg belonging to them, Orion is a Jabuti turtle and in the parts verging on to Sirius a cayman, the Pleiades are the bunches of blossom on the angico tree. The name of Venus was not translatable[501]. The Karaya of Central Brazil knew many constellations, and drew some of them in our informant’s sketch-book. The Southern Cross, for example, is a ray (the fish), the two stars of the Centaur above it represent an ostrich, upon which a jaguar, Scorpio, is leaping[502]. Of the natives of Brazil in general it is stated that there is hardly a single important constellation which does not explain to them some event, or represent some idea in connexion with things that happen upon the earth, though they certainly have no heroes to set in them. Myths of Orion, of the Pleiades, and of Canopus were related[503]. E. Nordenskiöld has repeatedly visited the border districts between the Argentine, Bolivia, and Brazil. Of the Chané and Chiriguano Indians he says that they do not give names to many constellations, but they know them very well. The part of the Milky Way lying nearest to the Southern Cross is called the Ostrich Way, the Southern Cross together with a few neighbouring stars is the head of the ostrich, and the two largest stars of the Centaur are its collar. Orion with his sword is called ‘Birds-meet-each-other’, another constellation is ‘the Roe-buck’s Horn’, still another ‘the Tapir’; the Pleiades are the most important constellation, they are called yehu, but the natives do not know the meaning of the name. Venus is called coemilla, ‘morning’. The Guarayu call Orion ‘the Black Vulture’; at his side lies a heap of snake’s bones (the sword). The Southern Cross with the stars around it is an ostrich, the two large stars of the Centaur are a roe-buck, the Great Bear is a road, a cluster of stars in the south is ‘the Eel’s Nest’. The Pleiades are called piangi, a word of unknown meaning; when, on their return after their period of invisibility, they are surrounded by a circle, it is a good omen: if the circle is missing, all men will die. Venus is called ‘the Big Star’[504]. The Karai tribes called α, β Centauri the ostrich’s feet, the body is the neighbouring ‘coal-pit’ (the dark spot of the Milky Way), the Southern Cross is a fresh-water ray, the Pleiades are a flock of parakeets, Orion is the burning roça, the tail of the Scorpion is called unze. The Ipurina of Rio Purus call Orion a beetle, the Pleiades a serpent, the Hyades a turtle, the Cross forest-folk[505]. In a Chilean word-list there are words for star, constellation, the Pleiades, Orion, planet, Venus[506].
In Africa the comparatively more civilised negro Tribes seem to have paid less attention to the stars than the more primitive tribes of the south. The Ho tribe considers the stars to be the children of the moon: it recognises and names the most important constellations, the morning star (‘the Clucking Hen’), and the stool-bearer of the moon, a star always situated in the vicinity of that planet. The Milky Way is composed of stars forming a cord[507]. Of the Ibo-speaking tribes we are told that they seem to be singularly incurious about heavenly bodies and occurrences; however names were got for the following constellations:—The Pleiades (‘Hen and Chickens’), the belt of Orion (‘Three and Three’), for the Great Bear two names not translated were given, Venus (‘the Wise-Man-who-can-talk’)[508]. In French Guinea η ursae is an ass, and the little star above it is a thief pursued by the six other stars, members of the tribe to which the stolen animal belongs. For other peoples the Great Bear is the star of the camel, Cassiopeia is that of the ass, the Pleiades have the name ‘murmur’, i. e. a confused thing. Jupiter (?), the companion and guardian of the moon, is held in particular veneration. The marabout in the morning awaits the rising of Venus, and announces by cries, or sometimes by blows on a gong, the hour of prayer. Everyone has his good and bad stars, which the magician takes carefully into account[509]. The intrusion of astrology is not striking, since the people are Mohammedans, while the names of the constellations must be of native origin. The Bakongo call the three stars in Orion’s belt ‘the Dog’, ‘the Palm-rat’, and ‘the Chief Hunter’; Venus is the wife of the moon. The people think that the rain comes from the Pleiades, who are regarded as the ‘Caretakers-who-guard-the-rain’, and if, at the beginning of the rainy season, this constellation is clearly seen, they expect a good rainy season, i. e. rain for their farms without superabundance[510]. The Bangala call the Pleiades a group of young women; five stars in Lepus, kole, are a man with head, hands, and feet; the belt of Orion represents three rowers; five stars in Orion are bundles of thunder and lightning; the evening star also has a name. From the appearance of the Milky Way they draw conclusions as to the lack or abundance of rain; when it is bright and clear there will be much rain[511]. Ten star-names of the Shilluk are given, but only two are translated: the Pleiades are ‘the Hen’, and ‘Three Stars’ is Uranus (sic!). Venus and a fore-runner of Venus are known[512]. The Wagogo know the Milky Way, the Pleiades, and the belt of Orion; the western star of the last-named is to them a boar, the middle star is the dog, and the eastern the hunter[513]. Of the Thonga it is further stated that the stars play a remarkably small part in their ideas. Venus is the best known, the Pleiades is the only constellation with a name; they have no notion whatever of constellations, their mind seems not to have tried to group the stars, or to have seen figures of animals or objects in the sky[514]. In Loango the following constellations are distinguished:—the false Southern Cross (‘the Turtle’), the Scorpion (‘the Serpent’), the Pleiades (‘Ants’), Orion (‘the Fish’), his belt (‘the Line of the Hunter’, who leads a dog), Sirius (‘the Rain-star’). The natives are aware that certain stars move; Jupiter is called ‘the Great Star’, Venus as the evening star is the wife of the moon, as a morning star she is the liar, spy of the moon, or false moon, illusory moon[515].
Far greater knowledge is possessed by the Hottentots, who know the planets accurately. Venus is ‘the Fore-runner of the sun’, or the star at whose rising men run away (i. e. from illicit intercourse), Mercury ‘the Dawn-star’, or the star that comes when the udders of the cows (which are milked morning and evening) are filled again: as an evening star he is not observed. Venus as an evening star is recognised to be the same celestial body as the morning star, and is called ‘the Evening Fugitive’, since it does not remain long in the sky. Jupiter is known, but is sometimes identified with Venus; when however he is seen in ‘the middle of the sky’ he is called ‘the Middle Star’. The six stars of the belt and sword of Orion are grouped together as ‘the Zebras’: δ, ε, ζ are three fugitive zebras against the middle one of which the hunter ι shoots his arrow θ and c. The Pleiades, on account of their thick cluster of stars, are called by a name derived from a verb meaning ‘assemble’, or are otherwise known as ‘the Rime-star’. The Milky Way is called ‘(glowing) Embers’, the Magellanic Clouds ‘Embers’ in the dual. Of single fixed stars our author heard only Sirius called by a name, ‘the Side-star’[516]. The Bushmen divide the stars into night-stars and dawn-stars: of the latter they relate very fine and complicated myths, such as that of the connexion between ‘the Dawn’s Heart’ (Jupiter) and a neighbouring star, his daughter (Regulus or α leonis). Achernar is ‘the Star-digging-stick’s-stone’, or ‘the Digging-stick’s-stone of Canopus’; the Pointers to the Southern Cross are three male lions; α, β, γ crucis are lionesses; Aldebaran is a male hartebeest, α Orion is a female hartebeest, Procyon a male eland, Castor and Pollux his wives, the Magellanic Clouds a steinbok, Orion’s sword three male tortoises hung upon a stick, his belt three female tortoises so hung[517].
The Toda of S. India know the Pleiades, Orion’s sword (‘the Porcupine-star’), the Great Bear, and Sirius, and relate about them myths which are probably borrowed from the neighbouring Badaga[518]. The pagans of the Malay Peninsula know the evening and the morning stars, and the stars of the astrological seasons (sic!), or the Pleiades[519]. In the Indian Archipelago the observation of the Pleiades as a sign of the arrival of the season for sowing is very common. Of the Kayan of Borneo it is stated that though they do not observe the stars or their movements for practical purposes, they are familiar with the principal constellations, and have fanciful names for them and relate mythical stories about the personages they are supposed to represent. The Klementan call Pegasus ‘the padi store-house’, the Pleiades are ‘a well’, the constellation to which Aldebaran belongs is ‘a pig’s jaw’, Orion is a man whose left arm is missing[520].
The natives of Australia have a rich stellar mythology[521]. The evening star has its name and its myths. The Pleiades are women who in the Alcheringa period lived at Intitakula: this is believed by all the tribes whom our authority studied. Orion they regard as an emu, and the stars in general as camp-fires of natives who live in heaven. As a general rule, however, the natives appear to pay very little attention to the stars in detail, probably because these enter very little into anything which is connected with their daily life, more especially with their food-supply. By the northern Arunta and the Kaitish the Magellanic Clouds are supposed to be full of evil magic, which sometimes comes down to earth and chokes men and women in their sleep[522]. According to another author acquainted with the Arunta the Pleiades are seven maidens who had danced at the circumcision ceremony and then ascended into heaven. Two stars in the neighbourhood of the Magellanic Clouds are called ‘the two Gland-poison Men’: the Clouds are the smoke of their fires; the dark patch in the Milky Way is an article of adornment (ngapatjinbi), the Southern Cross ‘an eagle’s foot’. The morning star is also known[523]. The tribes of S. E. Australia give names to many stars and group some of them together in constellations, among which are the sons of Bunjil. The Wiiambo thought that the stars were once great men. The Southern Cross is an emu, Mars an eagle, another star is a crow. The Pleiades, according to the Wotjo-baluh, are some women, corona australis is ‘the Laughing Jackass’, a small star in Argo is ‘the Shell Parakeet’[524].