For South America I find in the literature accessible to me no names of months recorded, except for the Inca people alone. Their series of months, which is collected from various sources, runs (beginning about January):—1, small growing moon; 2, great growing moon; 3, flower-growing moon; 4, twin-ears moon; 5, harvest moon; 6, breaking-soil moon; 7, irrigation moon; 8, sowing moon; 9, moon of the Moon-feast; 10, moon of the Feast of the province of Uma; 11, moon of the Feast of the province of Ayamarca; 12, moon of the Great Feast of the Sun. The ceremonies in connexion with this last festival were made to approximate to the moon’s phases, the various stages commencing with the ninth day, full moon, and the 21st day[759]. Nowadays the ability to bring the lunar year into agreement with the solar is usually denied to this people, although older writers have claimed this knowledge for them[760]. This is naturally correct, in so far as a leapyear cycle is meant; but it seems to me unlikely that the Inca people was unable to bring the moon-months into their proper position in the year by an occasional intercalation of a thirteenth month, when this became necessary. The not nearly so highly civilised Indians of North America could do this, and the Incas observed the solstices. The first eight names alone shew that. Perhaps the other months, as among certain tribes of N. American Indians, were originally nameless (it was no doubt the time when there was no work in the fields); that the names are of late origin is shewn by the reference to various provinces of the kingdom. The tribes of Bolivia also have moon-months[761], and among the Orinoco Indians months are mentioned[762]. The Karaya of Central Brazil know that the year has 13 full moons[763].
In Africa the lists of months are not so numerous as in the parts of the world hitherto mentioned. There are however plenty of them, and that not among the peoples most deeply influenced by civilisation: among such peoples the Islamite months have gained admission. In Morocco, southern Algeria, and even in the Sudan the Julian months are also found. The examples of a reckoning in months which relates to the seasons come from South and Central Africa, and therefore from the districts which have been more free from foreign influence.
The Hottentot series of months has fallen into decay. I reproduce the list of Schulze, who mentions another in Kroenlein, Wortschatz der Khoi-Khoin (Berlin, 1899), which has only nine names. His February corresponds to Schulze’s January; only in the position of the name for July, which Schulze claims for October, do the two lists differ considerably. The list, the positions of the months, and other statements come from an old Hottentot woman. The author however could not be quite sure that the ideas of the whites had not already influenced the number of months and their succession. The month begins when the crescent of the moon appears in the western sky. 1 (corresponds to about January), moon which follows upon the salsola-bush, which is an important pasture-bush and has its principal flowering-season in spring; 2, not translated; 3, when it begins to be cold; 4, by older Hottentots explained as the month of increasing cold: when one sits so near the fire that the legs blister; 5, the black month, time of drought, the black branches of the stripped bushes give the landscape this character; 6, not translated; 7, month of the Pleiades, which become visible in the latter half of June, and are of importance for the natives journeying in quest of tsama; 8, not translated; 9, the month when the leaves are curled up by the cold; 10 and 11, not translated; 12, named from the fact that when, after the first productive rains upon the old and withered grass, the fresh young green shoots up, the meadows appear to be dappled[764].
For the Basuto a native gives the following list:—1, phato = August, begins the year; 2, loetse, from loetsa, ‘to anoint wounds with fat, syringe the ear’, since the winter is broken and a little warmth comes; 3, mphalane, mphalane ’a leshoma, leshoma a kind of bulb which at that time begins to sprout, perhaps from liphalana, to glitter, the sun glitters, does not warm, or because of the girl-circumcision, which is announced by means of the blowing of liphalana-flutes by the old women who perform the operation; 4, pulungoana, diminutive of pulumo, gnu, which at this time brings forth its young; 5, tsitoe, grasshopper, which is especially to be heard at this time; 6, pherekong, perhaps ‘interjoin sticks’; 7, tlhakola = hlakola, to wipe off, tlhakola molula, to wipe off the molula: molula is the stage at which the mabele grain is still completely enveloped in the husk: now the grains shoot forth and the molula disappear, molula also means a kind of grass which is used in basket-work; 8, tlhakubele, from thlaku, grains: therefore:—the mabele plant has grains; 9, ’mesa, ’mesa tseleng, kindling fire by the roadside, as is done by those who drive away the birds from the fields, either to warm themselves or to roast ears of corn; 10, motseanong, i. e. ‘bird-laugher’, since the grains are by now so firmly fixed in the ears that the birds cannot get them; 11, phupjoane, from phupu, ‘beginning to swell’, with reference to a kind of bulb; 12, phuphu, ‘bulging out’, i. e. bulbs and the stems of some hardy plants[765].
Of the Caffres we are told:—They count in the year only twelve months, and for these they have names: the result is frequent confusion and difference of opinion as to which month it really is. There is, for example, the month of the cuckoo, when this bird is first heard, the month of the erythusia, when this plant blossoms, the month of much dust, mid-winter. The names of the moons are more or less descriptive of the season, e. g. newaba, green, describes the first appearance of the vegetation; furnfu, September, cattle licking green grass; zibandhlela, October, footpaths being covered with grass; hlolange, January, time to look for first-fruits; hlangula, May, time of falling leaves[766]. Unfortunately the complete list is not given.
By the Baronga the months or moons are now almost completely forgotten, at least among the southern clans. The following statements come from the northern clans, where the names have been better preserved:—nhlangula, the month in which the flowers are swept from the trees, probably October, in which various trees blossom; nwendjamhala, the month in which the antelope mhala brings forth its young (November?); mawuwana, when the tihuhlu are plucked, because the people shout ‘wuwana, wuwana’ in their joy at having plenty of almonds to suck (December); hukuri is said to be the month when the fruits of the nkwakwa are ripe (December also?); ndjati or ndjata, i. e. ‘I am coming’. It is the time of nwebo, when everyone in his fields is eating the new cobs of mealies, and if you call, a person will answer:—“I come directly! Have patience! I am busy”. This may be January or February. Sunguti is also one of the summer months; sibamesoko, the moon which closes the paths, also called dwebindlela or sibandlela (February), is the time when the grass grows so high that it hides the paths; nyenyana, nywenywankulu are the months of the birds (nyenyana), when one spends the time in chasing them from the fields (March and April); mudashini, i. e. ‘What am I to eat?’ is so named because in the harvest month there are so many different kinds of food that you do not know which to choose (May or June); khotubushika, i. e. ‘when winter comes’, is probably June or July[767].
For the Herero the following list is given:—1 (January), month of rain; 2, lambing month; 3, first pools of water; 4, last pools of water; 5, lily month; 6, month of good luck; 7, rising of the water in the river beds; 8, month of fog; 9, Pleiades month: the Pleiades become visible and then okuni, spring, begins; 10, first month, and therefore the first month in the Herero reckoning (sic! probably of the spring, cp. the following); 11, last moon namely the last month, of spring; 12, dry, hard moon[768]. Another list has:—1 (January), Vley water; 2, birth-time of springboks; 3, last Vley water; 4, last rain-showers; 5, cold days; 6, dry period; 7, dry trees; lambing season; 9, a lily begins to bud; 10, the milk-bushes become green; 11, the rain begins; 12, wet period[769].
In Loango the names of the months differ considerably according to the situation of the district and the influence of this upon the habits of life:—Month of expectation, month of the little rains, of drought, of the curse, of the great rains, of the water, of men, of women, of the harvest, of the vanishing water, of fish, of the rice, of trade, of mist, of salt, of sleep, of the huts, of the burning (of grass and brushwood), of mirth, of labour, of aid, between-month, cold month, wood month, bud month, besom-and-dirt month (great cleaning), and any other terms in popular use[770].
Some of the tribesmen of Upper Wellé give to the months names in keeping with what is done in them. Thus one month is named as that in which they sow maroo, the chief ingredient used in brewing native beer; another as the season when maroo must be cut. Following this comes the ‘bad-water’ month, when the risk of fever is greatest; then the elephant month, when they catch elephants by burning grass, and the white-ant month, during which white ants are collected, and considered a great delicacy; and a second maroo month, when a second crop is sown. The month next to this has no distinctive name, and is succeeded by the second maroo-harvest month, the hungry or water-month, when provisions are scarce; the second ant-gathering month; a late sowing month, and finally another with no particular title. Altogether 13, therefore[771]. For the Shilluk twelve months are enumerated without translation: ‘moon’ and ‘month’ are expressed by the same word[772]. The Akamba of British East Africa assert that they reckon eleven months to the year, anzwa:—1, mwa, planting month; 2, wima, time of the autumn rains; 3, wiu, month of sprouting; 4, mveu, 5, onkonono, both untranslated; 6, thandatu, commence reaping; 7, moanza, not translated; 8, nyanya, ‘friend’ (sic!); 9, kenda, ‘nine’; 10, ekumi, ‘ten’ (in 1907 this month began on August 10); 11, mubiu, season of grass-burning. They say that the month has 31 days and that they see the new moon on the 32nd; they assert that they do not include the first day on which the moon is seen[773]. The system has evidently already fallen into decay, so that too great importance must not be attached to its peculiarities. The Wa-Sania of British East Africa divide their twelve months into three periods of four: the names are not given[774]. The Wagogo months are:—1, mosi, ‘the first’, about December; 2, mhiri, ‘general’ (i. e. rains everywhere); 3, mhalungulu, ‘cessation’ (sc. first rains over); 4, munye, ‘possessing’, i. e. enjoying first-fruits; 5, mwezi we litika, month of plenty; 6, mwezi we lisololela, month of beginning reaping; 7, mwezi we nhwanga, threshing-month; 8, mwezi we taga matoto, month when the harvest is ended; 9, mwezi we tutula, month of forest-clearing; 10, mwezi we ndawa mbereje, month of digging up the stubbles; 11, murisimuka, budding; 12, muchilanhungo, ‘partial’ (sc. partial rains, not general)[775]. The Nandi begin with the last month of drought, about February:—1, kiptamo, ‘hot in the fields’; 2, iwat-kut, rain in showers; 3, wake, meaning unknown; 4, ngei, the heart pushed on one side by hunger; 5, rob-tui, black rain or black clouds; 6, puret, mist; 7, epeso, meaning unknown; 8, kipsunde, offering to God in the corn-fields; 9, kipsunde oieng, second offering to God; 10, mulkul, strong wind; 11, mulkulik oieng, second strong wind; 12, ngotioto, the Brunsvigia Kirkii or pin-cushion plant[776].
The Masai divide their twelve months into four seasons, (I), ol dumeril, time of the scanty rain-fall:—1, ol gissan, in which the sheep and goats bring forth their young; 2, ol adallo, the heat of the sun; 3, ol golua (loo-’n-gushu). (II), en gokwa, the Pleiades (l’apaïtin te-’l-lengon, the months of superfluity):—4, le erat (kuj-orok), formed from er rata, ‘green valley’; the hitherto scanty rain has been sufficient to cover with fresh green the valleys and low-lying spots of the otherwise still yellow withered steppes; 5, os somisso (oäni-oingok), ‘the dark’, ‘gloomy’: the sky is overcast, there is much rain, the days are dark and gloomy; 6, ol nernerua (loo-’n-gokwa), formed from nerneri, ‘fat’. (III), ol airodjerod, the lesser after-rains:—7, le logunja airodjerod (kara-obo), also called oieni oinok, ‘the tied-up bulls’: owing to the abundant fodder of the last months the bulls have become wild, and would be continually fighting each other in the meadows, for which reason they are separated; 8, bolos airodjerod (kiperu), or also (but more rarely) ol dat; 9, kudjorok (l’iarat), ‘cold’, cold weather distinguishes this month. (IV), ol aimeii, time of hunger, of drought:—10, kiber (pushuke), uproar, quarrel. The pasture is thin, the milk scanty, and people try to steal from other persons’ cows: at last the milk is not sufficient to satisfy the necessary demands of hunger, and most of the warriors go off into the forest with some of the oxen to eat flesh. This lasts not only throughout this month but also during the next. 11, ol dongosh, ‘stretched’, since in this month too the milk is very scarce. The name seems to be derived from the word en gushush, ‘lack of food’. Only at the beginning of the 12th month, the boshogge (ol-oiborare), do the people come back to the kraal. I have followed Merker, p. 156. Hollis, pp. 333 ff., gives in some cases other names, which unfortunately are not translated; they are here given in brackets. Nos. 4 and 9 have exchanged names. It is worthy of note that the month of the evening setting of the Pleiades (gokwa) is named from this constellation. A further variation is that according to Hollis the first month is kara-obo. The year therefore begins with the season of the after-rains.