The oil-lamps used in coal-mining have a luminous intensity equivalent to about one to four candles, but owing to the atmospheric conditions in the mines a flame does not burn as brightly as in the fresh air. The possibility of explosion due to the open flame was eliminated by surrounding it with a metal gauze. Davy was the inventor of this device and his safety lamp introduced about a hundred years ago has been a boon to the coal-miner. Various improvements have been devised, but Davy's lamp contained the essentials of a safety device. The flame is surrounded by a cylinder of metal gauze which by forming a much cooler boundary prevents the mine-gas from becoming heated locally by the lamp flame to a sufficient temperature to ignite and consequently to explode. This device not only keeps the flame from igniting the gas but it also serves as an indicator of the amount of gas present, by the variation in the size and appearance of the tip of the flame. However, the gauze reduces the luminous output, and as it accumulates soot and dust the light is greatly diminished. One of these lamps is about as luminous as a candle, initially, but its intensity is often reduced by accumulations upon the gauze to only one fifth of the initial value.
The acetylene lamp is the best open-flame light-source available to the miner, for several reasons. It is of a higher candle-power than the others and as it is a burning gas, there is not the danger of flying sparks as in the case of burning wicks. The greater intensity of illumination affords a greater safety to the miner by enabling him to detect loose rock which may be ready to fall upon him. However, this lamp may be a source of danger, owing to the fact that it will burn more brilliantly in a vitiated atmosphere than other flame-lamps. Another disadvantage is the possibility of calcium carbide accidentally spilt coming in contact with water and thereby causing the generation of acetylene gas. If this is produced in the mine in sufficient quantities it is a danger which may not be suspected. If ignited it will explode and may also cause severe burns.
The electric lamp, being an enclosed light-source capable of being subdivided and fed by a small portable battery, early gave promise of solving the problem of a safe mine-lamp of adequate candle-power. Much ingenuity has been applied to the development of a portable electric safety mine-lamp, and several such lamps are now approved by the Bureau of Mines. Two general types are being manufactured, the cap outfit and the hand outfit. They consist essentially of a lamp in a reflector whose aperture is closed with a sheet or a lens of clear glass. The battery may be of the "dry" or "storage" type and in the case of the cap outfit the battery is carried on the back. The specifications for these lamps demand that a luminous intensity averaging at least 0.4 candle be maintained throughout twelve consecutive hours of operation. At no time during this period shall the output of light fall below 1.25 lumens for a cap-lamp and below 3 lumens for a hand-lamp. Inasmuch as these are equipped with reflectors, the specifications insist that a circle of light at least seven feet in diameter shall be cast on a wall twenty inches away. It appears that a portable lamp is an economic necessity in the coal-mines, on account of the expense, inconvenience, and possible dangers introduced by distribution systems such as are used in most places.
Although the major defects in lighting are due to absence of light in dangerous places, to glare, and to other factors of improper lighting, there are many minor details which may contribute to safety. For example, low lamps are useful in making steps in theaters and in other places, in drawing attention to entrances of elevators, in lighting the aisles of Pullman cars, under hand-rails on stairways, and in many other vital places. A study of accidents indicates that simple expedients are effective preventives.
XVIII
THE COST OF LIVING
A comparison of the civilization of the present with that of a century ago reveals a startling difference in the standards of living. To-day mankind enjoys conveniences and luxuries that were undreamed of by the past generations. For example, a certain town in Iowa, a score of years ago, was appraised for a bond-issue and it was necessary to extend its limits considerably in order to include a valuation of one half million dollars required by the underwriters. On a summer's evening at the present time a thousand "pleasure" automobiles may be found parked along its streets and these exceed in valuation that of the entire town only twenty years ago and equal it to-day. There are economists who would argue that the automobile has paid for itself by its usefulness, but the fact still exists that a great amount of labor has been diverted from producing food, clothing, and fuel to the production of "pleasure" automobiles. And this is the case with many other conveniences and luxuries. It is admitted that mankind deserves these refinements of modern civilization, but he must expect the cost of living to increase unless counteracting measures are taken.
The economics of the increasing cost of living and the analysis of the relations of necessities, conveniences, and luxuries are too complex to be thoroughly discussed here. In fact, the most expert economists would disagree on many points. However, it is certain that the cost of living has steadily increased during the past century and it is reasonably certain that the standards of the present civilization are responsible for some if not all of the increase. Increased production is an anchor to the windward. It may drag and give way to some extent, but it will always oppose the course of the cost of living.
When the first industrial plant was lighted by gas, early in the nineteenth century, the aim was merely to reinforce daylight toward the end of the day. Continuous operation of industrial plants was not practised in those days, excepting in a very few cases where it was essential. To-day some industries operate continuously, but most of them do not. In the latter case the consumer pays more for the product because the percentage of fixed or overhead charge is greater. Investment in ground, buildings, and equipment exacts its toll continuously and it is obvious that three successive shifts producing three times as much as a single day shift, or as much as a trebled day shift, will produce the less costly product. In the former case the fixed charge is distributed over the production of continuous operation, but in the latter case the production of a single day shift assumes the entire burden. Of course, there are many factors which enter into such a consideration and an important one is the desirability of working at night. It is not the intention to touch upon the psychological and sociological aspects but merely to look coldly upon the facts pertaining to artificial light and production.