City waterworks
STERILIZING WATER WITH RADIANT ENERGY FROM QUARTZ MERCURY-ARCS
Although it appears that the chemical action of light was known to the ancients, the earliest photochemical investigations which could be considered scientific and systematic were those of K. W. Scheele in 1777 on silver salts. An extract from his own account is as follows:
I precipitated a solution of silver by sal-ammoniac; then I edulcorated (washed) it and dried the precipitate and exposed it to the beams of the sun for two weeks; after which I stirred the powder and repeated the same several times. Hereupon I poured some caustic spirit of sal-ammoniac (strong ammonia) on this, in all appearance, black powder, and set it by for digestion. This menstruum (solvent) dissolved a quantity of luna cornua (horn silver), though some black powder remained undissolved. The powder having been washed was, for the greater part, dissolved by a pure acid of nitre (nitric acid), which, by the operation, acquired volatility. This solution I precipitated again by means of sal-ammoniac into horn silver. Hence it follows that the blackness which the luna cornua acquires from the sun's light, and likewise the solution of silver poured on chalk, is silver by reduction. I mixed so much of distilled water with the well-washed horn silver as would just cover this powder. The half of this mixture I poured into a white crystal phial, exposed it to the beams of the sun, and shook it several times each day; the other half I set in a dark place. After having exposed the one mixture during the space of two weeks, I filtrated the water standing over the horn silver, grown already black; I let some of this water fall by drops in a solution of silver, which was immediately precipitated into horn silver.
This extract shows that Scheele dealt with the reducing action of light. He found that silver chloride was decomposed by light and that there was a liberation of chlorine. However, it was learned later that dried silver chloride sealed in a tube from which the air was exhausted is not discolored by light and that substances must be present to absorb the chlorine. Scheele's work aroused much interest in photochemical effects and many investigations followed. In many of these the superiority of blue, violet, and ultra-violet rays was demonstrated. In 1802 the first photograph was made by Wedgwood, who copied paintings upon glass and made profiles by casting shadows upon a sensitive chemical compound. However, he was not able to fix the image. Much study and experimentation were expended upon photochemical effects, especially with silver compounds, before Niepce developed a method of producing pictures which were subsequently unaffected by light. Later Daguerre became associated with Niepce and the famous daguerreotype was the result. Apparently the latter was chiefly responsible for the development of this first commercial process, the products of which are still to be found in the family album. A century has elapsed since this earliest period of commercial photography, and during each year progress has been made, until at the present time photography is thoroughly woven into the activities of civilized mankind.
In those earliest years a person was obliged to sit motionless in the sun for minutes in order to have his picture taken. The development of a century is exemplified in the "snapshot" of the present time. Photographic exposures outdoors at present are commonly one thousandth of a second, and indoors under modern artificial light miles of "moving-picture" film are made daily in which the individual exposures are very small fractions of a second. Artificial light is playing a great part in this branch of photochemistry, and the development of artificial light for the various photographic needs is best emphasized by reminding the reader that the sources must be generally comparable with the sun in actinic or chemical power. The intensity of illumination due to sunlight on a clear day when the sun is near the zenith is commonly 10,000 foot-candles on a surface perpendicular to the direct rays. This is equivalent to the illumination due to a source 90,000 candle-power at a distance of three feet. The sun delivers about 200,000,000,000 horse-power to the earth continuously, which is estimated to be about one million times the amount of power generated artificially on the earth. Of this inconceivable quantity of energy a small part is absorbed by vegetation, some is reflected and radiated back into space, and the balance heats the earth. To store some of this energy so that it may be utilized at will in any desired form is one of the dreams of science. However, artificial light-sources are depended upon at present in many photographic and other chemical processes.
Although two illuminants may be of the same luminous intensity, they may differ widely in actinic value. It is impossible to rate the different illuminants in a general manner as to actinic value because the various photochemical reactions are not affected to the same extent by rays of a given wave-length. Nearly all human eyes see visible rays in approximately the same manner, but the multitude of chemical reactions show a wide variation in sensitivity to the various rays. For example, one photographic emulsion may be sensitive only to ultra-violet, violet, and blue rays and another to all these rays and also to the green, yellow, and red. Therefore, one illuminant may be superior to another for one photochemical reaction, while the reverse may be true in the case of another reaction. In general, it may be said that the arc-lamps including the mercury-arcs provide the most active illuminants for photochemical processes; however, a large number of electric incandescent filament lamps are used in photographic work.
The photo-engraver has been independent of sunlight since the practical development of his art. In fact, the printer could not depend upon sunlight for making the engravings which are used to illustrate the magazines and newspapers. The newspaper photographer may make a "flashlight" exposure, develop his negative, and make a print from it under artificial light. He may turn this over to the photo-engraver who carries out his work by means of powerful arc-lamps and in an hour or two after the original exposure was made the newspaper containing the illustration is being sold on the streets.
The moving-picture studio is independent of daylight in indoor settings and there is a tendency toward the exclusive use of artificial light. In this field mercury-vapor lamps, arc-lamps, and tungsten photographic lamps are used. Similarly, in the portrait studio there is a tendency for the photographer to leave the skylighted upper floors and to utilize artificial light. In this field the tungsten photographic lamp is gaining in popularity, owing to its simplicity and to other advantages. Artificial light in general is more satisfactory than natural light for many kinds of photographic work because through the ease of controlling it a greater variety of more artistic effects may be obtained. In ordinary photographic printing tungsten lamps are widely used, but in blue-printing the white flame-arc and the mercury-vapor lamp are generally employed. Not many years ago the blue-printer waited for the sun to appear in order to make his prints, but to-day large machines operate continuously under the light of powerful artificial sources. How many realize that the blue-print is almost universally at the foundation of everything at the present time? Not only are products made from blue-prints but the machinery which makes the products is built from blue-prints. Even the building which houses the machinery is first constructed from blue-prints. They form an endless chain in the activities of present civilization.