And yet, in a way, they had poetic souls. The beauty and grandeur of nature revealed itself in their dignified bearing. Many were majestic in appearance, poised of manner, and eloquent in speech. Some of them were gifted storytellers who entertained their hearers. Others were great speakers who instructed them in the legendary lore of the tribe. Still others were artists, musicians, skilled artisans in many lines; and there were medicine men.

Tribal organization was based upon the family unit, which was monogamous, except in the case of the chief men who usually had several wives. The chief’s lodge occupied a central position in the village, with other leaders’ abodes surrounding. The women, too, observed a style of dress in keeping with their respective stations. Heredity in leadership was unknown; men became chiefs by reason of their cunning and courage in war, wisdom in council, and generosity toward the tribesmen.[65]

In the matter of economics most mountain Indians were novices. It is undoubtedly true that early American settlers received important initial aid from the Indians in raising crops. They taught the whites how to raise the very products that still constitute the backbone of American production: maize, potatoes, tobacco, cotton, squash, and beans. But instead of improving along with the settlers, they generally preferred the ways of their fathers. They did not lack the means for the production and preservation of food so much as the energy and ability to anticipate future necessity.

In the Rocky Mountains, where nature was quite inhospitable (without irrigation), the natives were even less thrifty than elsewhere. When food was plentiful they would gormandize to the uttermost, living contentedly. When confronted by famine they would languish in starvation. Natural forces battered them roughly. There was fasting, but there were buffalo brains and tongues too—earth’s supreme dish!

W. S. Chapman
Mountain Indian clan.

The women and girls were practically slaves to their husbands and brothers. They were inured in hardships and possessed much forbearance and self-denial. Their homemaking work was arduous. They dressed all game and gathered nuts, berries, fuel, and roots. They made bows, arrows, lodges, travois, and clothing. The packing and moving, striking lodges and general routine was women’s work.[66] There was never the slightest disposition to complain among them; in fact, they were inclined to despise a brave who departed from the usual patterns. He would be called “old woman” and his squaw, if any, often received a castigation. Maidens were required to be modest, wear robes at all times, and look seriously upon life. Marriages were arranged by parents with the consent of near relations. The desires of the young people were given consideration, if reasonable, but the decision was made by the girl’s father.

Meat was the mainstay of life among Indians, and a considerable supply was available before white men came. In spite of inadequate weapons, the natives had numerous effective methods of securing wild game. Most hunters were masters of what was called the cabalistical language of birds and beasts. By this means they were able to approach many animals closely and slay them. Bison were sometimes driven into natural arenas where a gory slaughter ensued. Occasionally these great beasts were maneuvered into runs, from which they were stampeded pellmell over a precipice.[67] Generally they were simply chased and shot down at full gallop. This procedure required great dexterity in loading and discharging weapons. Of course the hunter’s full attention was given to the target because his hunting horse took care of himself. He anticipated every move of the prey. With eyes flashing, nostrils distended, and foam flowing from his mouth, the trained steed sprang after the deceptive buffalo in swift execution of his master’s will.

The war horse was even more highly prized than a hunter. Animals of exotic appearance had double or treble value over ordinary steeds and were claimed by the chiefs. The proud warrior went to as much pains to adorn his horse as he did himself. Nothing could induce him to neglect or mistreat his favorite.

In their palmy days, the Indians largely confined their efforts to pursuit of big game. In later years they had reluctant recourse to smaller animals. Rabbits were encircled—sometimes by a chain of fire. Ground squirrels were drowned out, and all types of animal life were utilized for food. The products of the buffalo, deer, elk, antelope, goat, bear, beaver, and numerous small animals and fish gave them strength for the pursuit of more game and the enemy. Many different combinations of meat, roots, nuts, and berries were known to the Indians. Pemmican was a mixture of pounded dried meat, grease, and service berries. When properly prepared and packed in skins this food would keep indefinitely.[68]