Chapter
[1. INTRODUCTION]
[The Armed forces Before 1940]
[Civil Rights and the Law in 1940]
[To Segregate Is To Discriminate]
[2. WORLD WAR II: THE ARMY]
[A War Policy: Reaffirming Segregation]
[Segregation and Efficiency]
[The Need for Change]
[Internal Reform: Amending Racial Practices]
[Two Exceptions]
[3. WORLD WAR II: THE NAVY]
[Development of a Wartime Policy]
[A Segregated Navy]
[Progressive Experiments]
[Forrestal Takes the Helm]
[4. WORLD WAR II: THE MARINE CORPS AND THE COAST GUARD]
[The First Black Marines]
[New Roles for Black Coast Guardsmen]
[5. A POSTWAR SEARCH]
[Black Demands]
[The Army's Grand Review]
[The Navy's Informal Inspection]
[6. NEW DIRECTIONS]
[The Gillem Board Report]
[Integration of the General Service]
[The Marine Corps]
[7. A PROBLEM OF QUOTAS]
[The Quota in Practice]
[Broader Opportunities]
[Assignments]
[A New Approach]
[The Quota System: An Assessment]
[8. SEGREGATION'S CONSEQUENCES]
[Discipline and Morale Among Black Troops]
[Improving the Status of the Segregated Soldier]
[Discrimination and the Postwar Army]
[Segregation in Theory and Practice]
[Segregation: An Assessment]
[9. THE POSTWAR NAVY]
[The Steward's Branch]
[Black Officers]
[Public Image and the Problem of Numbers]
[10. THE POSTWAR MARINE CORPS]
[Racial Quotas and Assignments]
[Recruitment]
[Segregation and Efficiency]
[Toward Integration]
[11. THE POSTWAR AIR FORCE]
[Segregation and Efficiency]
[Impulse for Change]
[12. THE PRESIDENT INTERVENES]
[The Truman Administration and Civil Rights]
[Civil Rights and the Department of Defense]
[Executive Order 9981]
[13. SERVICE INTERESTS VERSUS PRESIDENTIAL INTENT]
[Public Reaction to Executive Order 9981]
[The Army: Segregation on the Defensive]
[A Different Approach]
[The Navy: Business as Usual]
[Adjustments in the Marine Corps]
[The Air Force Plans for Limited Integration]
[14. THE FAHY COMMITTEE VERSUS THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE]
[The Committee's Recommendations]
[A Summer of Discontent]
[Assignments]
[Quotas]
[An Assessment]
[15. THE ROLE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, 1949-1951]
[Overseas Restrictions]
[Congressional Concerns]
[16. INTEGRATION IN THE AIR FORCE AND THE NAVY]
[The Air Force, 1949-1951]
[The Navy and Executive Order 9981]
[17. THE ARMY INTEGRATES]
[Race and Efficiency: 1950]
[Training]
[Performance of Segregated Units]
[Final Arguments]
[Integration of the Eighth Army]
[Integration of the European and Continental Commands]
[18. INTEGRATION OF THE MARINE CORPS]
[Impetus for Change]
[Assignments]
[19. A NEW ERA BEGINS]
[The Civil Rights Revolution]
[Limitations on Executive Order 9981]
[Integration of Navy Shipyards]
[Dependent Children and Integrated Schools]
[20. LIMITED RESPONSE TO DISCRIMINATION]
[The Kennedy Administration and Civil Rights]
[The Department of Defense, 1961-1963]
[Discrimination Off the Military Reservation]
[Reserves and Regulars: A Comparison]
[21. EQUAL TREATMENT AND OPPORTUNITY REDEFINED]
[The Secretary Makes a Decision]
[The Gesell Committee]
[Reaction to a New Commitment]
[The Gesell Committee: Final Report]
[22. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE MILITARY COMMUNITY]
[Creating a Civil Rights Apparatus]
[Fighting Discrimination Within the Services]
[23. FROM VOLUNTARY COMPLIANCE TO SANCTIONS]
[Development of Voluntary Action Programs]
[Civil Rights, 1964-1966]
[The Civil Rights Act and Voluntary Compliance]
[The Limits of Voluntary Compliance]
[24. CONCLUSION]
[Why the Services Integrated]
[How the Services Integrated, 1946-1954]
[Equal Treatment and Opportunity]
[NOTE ON SOURCES]
[INDEX]
Illustrations
[Crewmen of the USS Miami During the Civil War]
[Buffalo Soldiers]
[Integration in the Army of 1888]
[Gunner's Gang on the USS Maine]
[General John J. (Black Jack) Pershing Inspects Troops]
[Heroes of the 369th Infantry, February 1919]
[Judge William H. Hastie]
[General George C. Marshall and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson]
[Engineer Construction Troops in Liberia, July 1942]
[Labor Battalion Troops in the Aleutian Islands, May 1943]
[Sergeant Addressing the Line]
[Pilots of the 332d Fighter Group]
[Service Club, Fort Huachuca]
[93d Division Troops in Bougainville, April 1944]
[Gun Crew of Battery B, 598th Field Artillery, September 1944]
[Tankers of the 761st Medium Tank Battalion Prepare for Action]
[WAAC Replacements]
[Volunteers for Combat in Training]
[Road Repairmen]
[Mess Attendant, First Class, Dorie Miller Addressing Recruits at Camp Smalls]
[Admiral Ernest J. King and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox]
[Crew Members of USS Argonaut, Pearl Harbor, 1942]
[Messmen Volunteer as Gunners, July 1942]
[Electrician Mates String Power Lines]
[Laborers at Naval Ammunition Depot]
[Seabees in the South Pacific]
[Lt. Comdr. Christopher S. Sargent]
[USS Mason]
[First Black Officers in the Navy]
[Lt. (jg.) Harriet Ida Pickens and Ens. Frances Wills]
[Sailors in the General Service]
[Security Watch in the Marianas]
[Specialists Repair Aircraft]
[The 22d Special Construction Battalion Celebrates V-J Day]
[Marines of the 51st Defense Battalion, Montford Point, 1942]
[Shore Party in Training, Camp Lejeune, 1942]
[D-day on Peleliu]
[Medical Attendants at Rest, Peleliu, October 1944]
[Gun Crew of the 52d Defense Battalion]
[Crewmen of USCG Lifeboat Station, Pea Island, North Carolina]
[Coast Guard Recruits at Manhattan Beach Training Station, New York]
[Stewards at Battle Station on the Cutter Campbell]
[Shore Leave in Scotland]
[Lt. Comdr. Carlton Skinner and Crew of the USS Sea Cloud]
[Ens. Joseph J. Jenkins and Lt. (jg.) Clarence Samuels]
[President Harry S. Truman Addressing the NAACP Convention]
[Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy]
[Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War Truman K. Gibson]
[Company I, 370th Infantry, 92d Division, Advances Through Cascina, Italy]
[92d Division Engineers Prepare a Ford for Arno River Traffic]
[Lester Granger Interviewing Sailors]
[Granger With Crewmen of a Naval Yard Craft]
[Lt. Gen. Alvan C. Gillem, U.S. Army]
[Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson]
[Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, U.S. Navy]
[General Gerald C. Thomas, U.S. Marine Corps]
[Lt. Gen. Willard S. Paul]
[Adviser to the Secretary of War Marcus Ray]
[Lt. Gen. Robert L. Eichelberger Inspects 24th Infantry Troops]
[Army Specialists Report for Airborne Training]
[Bridge Players, Seaview Service Club, Tokyo, Japan, 1948]
[24th Infantry Band, Gifu, Japan, 1947]
[Lt. Gen. Clarence R. Huebner Inspects the 529th Military Police Company]
[Reporting to Kitzingen]
[Inspection by the Chief of Staff]
[Brig. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Sr.]
[Shore Leave in Korea]
[Mess Attendants, USS Bushnell, 1918]
[Mess Attendants, USS Wisconsin, 1953]
[Lt. Comdr. Dennis D. Nelson II]
[Naval Unit Passes in Review, Naval Advanced Base, Bremerhaven, Germany]
[Submariner]
[Marine Artillery Team]
[2d Lt. and Mrs. Frederick C. Branch]
[Training Exercises]
[Damage Inspection]
[Col. Noel F. Parrish]
[Officers' Softball Team]
[Checking Ammunition]
[Squadron F, 318th AAF Battalion, in Review]
[Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., Commander, 477th Composite Group, 1945]
[Lt. Gen. Idwal H. Edwards]
[Col. Jack F. Marr]
[Walter F. White]
[Truman's Civil Rights Campaign]
[A. Philip Randolph]
[National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 April 1948]
[MP's Hitch a Ride]
[Secretary of the Army Kenneth C. Royall Reviews Military Police Battalion]
[Spring Formal Dance, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland, 1952]
[Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal]
[General Clifton B. Cates]
[1st Marine Division Drill Team on Exhibition]
[Secretary of the Air Force W. Stuart Symington]
[Secretary of Defense Louis C. Johnson]
[Fahy Committee With President Truman and Armed Services Secretaries]
[E. W. Kenworthy]
[Charles Fahy]
[Roy K. Davenport]
[Press Notice]
[Secretary of the Army Gordon Gray]
[Chief of Staff of the Army J. Lawton Collins]
["No Longer a Dream"]
[Navy Corpsman in Korea]
[25th Division Troops in Japan]
[Assistant Secretary of Defense Anna M. Rosenberg]
[Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Eugene M. Zuckert]
[Music Makers]
[Maintenance Crew, 462d Strategic Fighter Squadron]
[Jet Mechanics]
[Christmas in Korea, 1950]
[Rearming at Sea]
[Broadening Skills]
[Integrated Stewards Class Graduates, Great Lakes, 1953]
[WAVE Recruits, Naval Training Center, Bainbridge, Maryland, 1953]
[Rear Adm. Samuel L. Gravely, Jr.]
[Moving Up]
[Men of Battery A, 159th Field Artillery Battalion]
[Survivors of an Intelligence and Reconnaissance Platoon, 24th Infantry]
[General Matthew B. Ridgway, Far East Commander]
[Machine Gunners of Company L, 14th Infantry, Hill 931, Korea]
[Color Guard, 160th Infantry, Korea, 1952]
[Visit With the Commander]
[Brothers Under the Skin]
[Marines on the Kansas Line, Korea]
[Marine Reinforcements]
[Training Exercises on Iwo Jima, March 1954]
[Marines From Camp Lejeune]
[Lt. Col. Frank E. Petersen, Jr.]
[Sergeant Major Edgar R. Huff]
[Clarence Mitchell]
[Congressman Adam Clayton Powell]
[Secretary of the Navy Robert B. Anderson]
[Reading Class in the Military Dependents School, Yokohama]
[Civil Rights Leaders at the White House]
[President John F. Kennedy and President Jorge Allessandri]
[Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara]
[Adam Yarmolinsky]
[James C. Evans]
[The Gesell Committee Meets With the President]
[Alfred B. Fitt]
[Arriving in Vietnam]
[Digging In]
[Listening to the Squad Leader]
[Supplying the Seventh Fleet]
[USAF Ground Crew, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Vietnam]
[Fighter Pilots on the Line]
[Medical Examination]
[Auto Pilot Shop]
[Submarine Tender Duty]
[First Aid]
[Vietnam Patrol]
[Marine Engineers in Vietnam]
[Loading a Rocket Launcher]
[American Sailors Help Evacuate a Vietnamese Child]
[Booby Trap Victim from Company B, 47th Infantry]
[Camaraderie ]
All illustrations are from the files of the Department of Defense and the National Archives and Records Service with the exception of the pictures on pages 6 and 10, courtesy of William G. Bell; on page 20, by Fabian Bachrach, courtesy of Judge William H. Hastie; on page 120, courtesy of Carlton Skinner; on page 297, courtesy of the Washington Star, on page 361, courtesy of the Afro-American Newspapers; on page 377, courtesy of the Sengstacke Newspapers; and on page 475, courtesy of the Washington Bureau of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
Tables
No.
1. [Classification of All Men Tested From March 1941 Through December 1942]
2. [AGCT Percentages in Selected World War II Divisions]
3. [Percentage of Black Enlisted Men and Women]
4. [Disposition of Black Personnel at Eight Air Force Bases, 1949]
5. [Racial Composition of Air Force Units]
6. [Black Strength in the Air Force]
7. [Racial Composition of the Training Command, December 1949]
8. [Black Manpower, U.S. Navy]
9. [Worldwide Distribution of Enlisted Personnel by Race, October 1952]
10. [Distribution of Black Enlisted Personnel by Branch and Rank, 31 October 1952]
11. [Black Marines, 1949-1955]
12. [Defense Installations With Segregated Public Schools]
13. [Black Strength in the Armed Forces for Selected Years]
14. [Estimated Percentage Distribution of Draft-Age Males in U.S. Population by AFQT Groups]
15. [Rate of Men Disqualified for Service in 1962]
16. [Rejection Rates for Failure To Pass Armed Forces Mental Test, 1962]
17. [Nonwhite Inductions and First Enlistments, Fiscal Years 1953-1962]
18. [Distribution of Enlisted Personnel in Each Major Occupation, 1956]
19. [Occupational Group Distribution by Race, All DOD, 1962]
20. [Occupational Group Distribution of Enlisted Personnel by Length of Service, and Race]
21. [Percentage Distribution of Navy Enlisted Personnel by Race, AFQT Groups and Occupational Areas, and Length of Service, 1962]
22. [Percentage Distribution of Blacks and Whites by Pay Grade, All DOD, 1962]
23. [Percentage Distribution of Navy Enlisted Personnel by Race, AFQT Groups, Pay Grade, and Length of Service, 1962]
24. [Black Percentages, 1962-1968]
25. [Rates for First Reenlistments, 1964-1967]
26. [Black Attendance at the Military Academies, July 1968]
27. [Army and Air Force Commissions Granted at Predominately Black Schools]
28. [Percentage of Negroes in Certain Military Ranks, 1964-1966]
29. [Distribution of Servicemen in Occupational Groups by Race, 1967]