Trade Unions.—The trade union, although supposed to be of modern origin, was established as early as 1548. Mythical history which, of course, cannot be authenticated, indicates the possibility of an organization of working men at the time of the building of Solomon's temple. During the last several years, trade unionism has grown to enormous proportions, and practically every vocation has its union or organization. The right to organize is self-evident, so long as it does not restrain trade or interfere with personal rights. The employee and employer certainly have legal and moral rights to do as they please, provided they do not interfere with legal or moral law, and do not use coercion. Moral influence, however, cannot be criticised. The maintenance of a well-organized labor union is to the advantage of both capital and labor, and should be encouraged. Naturally, the binding together of laborers or workmen, and that of capital, causes some abuses, for humanity, as it runs, is not always fair; but one should not criticise either side without criticising the other. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, both are fair and unfair. As civilization progresses, the mistakes and abuses will be corrected, and organized labor and capital will work in harmony.
Trusts.—A trust is an association of capitalists, organized for the purpose of controlling any one trade or trades. It is illegal and may be punished by imprisonment or fine. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to discover whether or not an organization is in actual restraint of trade, and to prosecute a combination. Undoubtedly trusts exist in America, and all over the world for that matter, and are illegal. Great effort is being made to disband them, but so far has very little real effect, for most of the trusts which are disorganized by law continue in some other form.
Turbines.—The turbine has largely taken the place of the water wheel, because it is more compact, produces greater energy, and is more powerful. It is, untechnically speaking, a box containing a series of fanlike blades set at an angle, so that water or steam brought against them will make them turn.
Type.—Movable metallic type was invented by Gutenberg, of Germany, about 1450. Before this time, all books and papers were either hand-written or printed from engraved wooden blocks. To-day there are over 50,000 faces and sizes of type. Type is divided into three great classes: (1) Roman or body type, which is used for the reading matter in newspapers, magazines, and books; (2) display type, which appears in headings, and is used for circulars and the like; and (3) ornamental type, which has a fancy face. The different sizes of type formerly bore arbitrary names, like Nonpareil, Pica, etc., but now all type is under the point system, Nonpareil being known as 6 Point and Pica as 12 Point. The reading matter in all large daily newspapers is set in 6 Point, but most books are printed from either 10, 11, or 12 Point. Twelve Point type has twice the depth of 6 Point type. Type to be set is placed in two cases, one known as upper case and the other as lower case, the former holding capitals and small capitals; the latter small letters and figures, both cases containing boxes for spaces and other characters. The compositor holds in his left hand what is known as a composing stick, or stick. It is made of metal, with a bottom and three sides, the left side being movable and adjustable. The compositor places one piece of type at a time in the stick, setting the type from left to right and upside down. He places metal spaces between each word. When a line is completed, he sets another, with or without a piece of thin metal between the lines, known as a lead. When the stick is full, he dumps his type into a galley, which is a receptacle made of wood or metal, from one to three feet long, framed at the bottom and at the sides, but open at the other end. The type is then locked up in a steel frame or chase, and is ready to be stereotyped, electrotyped, or to be printed from.
United States Flag.—On June 14, 1777, the United States Congress declared "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing the new constellation." In 1794 Congress decreed that after May 1st, 1795, "The flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." At that time the stars and stripes were of equal number, and it was the intention to add both a star and stripe with the addition of each new State. Subsequently, it was found that the addition of a stripe for each new State would produce a flag altogether too large. Accordingly, Congress, on April 4th, 1818, reduced the number of stripes to thirteen and made the number of stars twenty, that being the number of States at that time. It was further enacted that a new star should be added as each new State was admitted into the Union. By act of Congress, the flag has become a sacred emblem, and cannot be used for other than decorative or patriotic purposes, and cannot serve as a part of an advertisement or other announcement.
United States History in Brief
1492, August 3, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain.
1492, October 12, Columbus discovered America.
1607, May 13, the English made first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.
1609, September 11, Henry Hudson, commanding the "Half Moon," sailed into New York Harbor.