and
valencies respectively in combination with other substances. For like the third electron in the lithium atom, the last captured electrons in these elements will be much more lightly bound than the first two electrons. At the same time we understand why the electropositive character of these elements is less marked than in the case of lithium, since the electrons in the
-quanta orbits will be much more firmly bound on account of the stronger field in which they are moving. New conditions arise, however, in the case of the next element, carbon, as this element in its typical chemical combinations cannot be supposed to occur as an ion, but rather as a neutral atom. This must be assumed to be due not only to the great firmness in the binding of the electrons but also to be an essential consequence of the symmetrical configuration of the electrons.
With the binding of the
th,
th and