1. Fifth century.—Barbarian invasions; division of the lands of the empire into independent portions or freeholds.
2. From the fifth to the eighth century.—Gradual concentration of freeholds, or transformation of the small freeholds into fiefs, feuds, tenures, &c. Large properties, small possessions. Charlemagne (771-814) decrees that all freeholds are dependent upon the king of France.
3. From the eighth to the tenth century.—The relation between the crown and the superior dependents is broken; the latter becoming freeholders, while the smaller dependents cease to recognize the king, and adhere to the nearest suzerain. Feudal system.
4. Twelfth century.—Movement of the serfs towards liberty; emancipation of the communes.
5. Thirteenth century.—Abolition of personal right, and of the feudal system in Italy. Italian Republics.
6. Seventeenth century.—Abolition of feudalism in France during Richelieu's ministry. Despotism.
7. 1789.—Abolition of all privileges of birth, caste, provinces, and corporations; equality of persons and of rights. French democracy.
8. 1830.—The principle of concentration inherent in individual property is REMARKED. Development of the idea of association.
The more we reflect upon this series of transformations and changes, the more clearly we see that they were necessary in their principle, in their manifestations, and in their result.
It was necessary that inexperienced conquerors, eager for liberty, should divide the Roman Empire into a multitude of estates, as free and independent as themselves.