There is one circumstance connected with this timber in this country, at least in Scotland, which must prevent its general use in ship plank, and be of material injury to it for ship timbers; this is, that few trees of it of size are found without the timber being shaky or split, some to such a degree that the annual rings or concentric growths have separated from each other. This appears to be owing to our climate being colder than what is suitable to the nature of the plant; the sap in the stem possibly freezing in severe weather and splitting, or severing the growths of the timber, but more probably occasioned by the season being too short, and too moist and cold, to ripen or fill up with dense matter, sufficiently, the frame of the annual growths; thence, as each ring of sap-wood, prematurely hastened by the torpor of moisture and cold, turns to red or matured wood, and, in so doing, dries considerably within the other rings of moist sap-wood, the contractile force may be sufficient to separate this growth from the next external sap growth, the cohesion existing between the tissue or fabric of the growth being much stronger than the cohesion between one {45} growth and another. The uncommon dryness of the matured wood, and moistness of the sap-wood of this tree, and smallness of the number of sap-wood rings, commonly only from 2 to 6 in this country, incline us to believe that this is the cause of the insufficiency or defect; and that, in a milder, drier climate, the sap-wood rings will be found to be more numerous, and thus, independent of a better first ripening, affording a longer time for their cells to be more filled up with an unctuous matter (which prevents the shrinking) gradually deposited while they convey the sap, the sap-wood rings being the part of the timber through which the sap circulates. As proof of this unctuous deposit or filling up, we observe that dry sap-wood imbibes moisture much quicker, and in greater quantity, than dry mature. We think this premature maturity (if we may so term it) of timber in cold countries, a general law. Our larch, originally from the Apennine, has not more than one-third of the number of sap-rings of our Scots fir, indigenous in Mar and Rannoch mountains; and our narrow-leafed, or English elm, said to have been introduced from the Holy Land in time of the Crusades, has not more than one-half of the number of our indigenous broad-leafed, or Scots elm. From the sap-growths of Laburnum, {46} scarcely exceeding in number those of the Spanish chestnut, we should suppose that it has been moved northward, or that the proper climate has left it. We have observed that moist, or water-soaked ground, has influence, as well as climate, to deprive the alburnum vessels sooner of their living functions, inducing that torpor of tubes, or semi-vital condition, in which they only serve to support the more active parts, and constitute what is called Mature Timber.
It is a general opinion that Spanish chestnut soon takes rot in situations where the roots come in contact with water. This appears to result from moist soil inducing the too early maturing of the timber already alluded to, and occasioning shaky insufficient fabric, which soon corrupts. We have observed oaks which had fewer layers of sap-wood, from growing in damp situations, have the timber of inferior quality, and sometimes of a shaky, brownish description, when cut across, throwing out a dirty brownish liquid or stain.
From the use of the Spanish chestnut in the Spanish navy, both in planking and timbering, and from the roofing beams and ornamental work of Westminster Hall being also of this wood, we should suppose it was not so liable to this defect of rents in {47} the timber in milder climates. Chestnut timber is a good deal similar to oak, though not quite so reedy and elastic, but is destitute of the large laminæ or plates (flash), which, radiating from the pith to the outside, become so prominent to view in the oak when the longitudinal section is perpendicular to the outside, in the plane of the laminæ. It is, we should think, as capable of supporting weight, when stretching as a beam, as the oak, and is equally, if not more durable, many beams of it existing in very old buildings undecayed: it is said even to have been taken out fresh where it had stood 600 years as lintels. Earth stakes of it are also very durable. It possesses one advantage over oak, which must recommend it for ship-building, that is, having much less proportion of sap-wood; and, from the matured wood containing much less sap or moisture, we should suppose it not so liable to dry rot, or that more simple means, or shorter period, would suffice for seasoning it, so as to be proof against this evil. Spanish chestnut is as yet little known among British shipwrights; but were a quantity of it in the market free of the unsoundness we have alluded to, its merits would soon become known. The bark is used by tanners, but is said not to equal that of oak.
BEECH-TREE—Fagus sylvatica.
This hardy tree occupies fully as wide a range, both of soil and climate, as the oak, and is generally the fastest growing, most vigorous of all our hard-wood kinds, prospering on all soils, on the dry and moist, the aluminous, the calcareous, the siliceous, provided water does not stagnate. It combines magnificence with beauty, being at once the Hercules and Adonis of our Sylva. The timber of our beech, while green, is by far the hardest of our large growing trees, and, in the American forest, the members of the beechen family match better than those of any other, with the perseverance of the ruthless Yankee; the roots retaining the hardness deeper in the earth than those of any other tree, and being so plaited and netted throughout the ground for a considerable space around the bulb, that it is next to impossible to trench or dig over the soil till they have decayed.
As we have before stated, the timber of the beech-tree soon corrupts if it is not speedily dried, or kept in water after being cut down, and is equally liable to corruption in the tree when deprived of life by wounds or other injury. Beech has a matured and sap wood, although they are not very distinguishable, being nearly of one colour. The former has {49} considerable durability when kept dry, the latter is speedily consumed by worming.
The planter of beech should procure the kind[10] with yellow-coloured wood, termed by joiners Yellow Beech, in opposition to the kind with white wood, called White Beech. The yellow grows faster and straighter, and is cleaner and freer of black knots, and also more pleasantly worked than the white, but it corrupts much sooner in the bark when cut down. This variety of beech, when properly trained, is probably the most profitable hard-wood that we can raise; when planked, it bends pleasantly under the shipwright to the curvature of the vessel’s side. The tree is also much superior in size and grace of outline to the white. There are few planters who need be put in mind that beech of small size, or of short or crooked stem, is the least valuable of all timber. Whoever plants with a view to profit will, therefore, throw in only as many beech plants as may ultimately be required for standards, and these in the bosom of plantations; as it is seldom that beech attains to much value in hedge-row or on the outskirts of woods, {50} from its proneness when so situated to ramify and grow crooked. It is, however, quite possible, with a little early attention, to rear beech as straight and clean as to be valuable, on the outskirts, where it forms a beautiful fringe to the plantation, and affords excellent shelter.
ELM—Ulmus.—BROAD-LEAVED, OR SCOTCH, or WYCH ELM—Ulmus montana.
This beautiful and most graceful tree, whose favourite locality is the damp, deep, accumulated soil, free of stagnant water, at the bottom of declivities, is, together with its sister, the small-leaved kind, the English elm, when so situated, the fastest growing of our hard-wood trees. Both delight in easy or gravelly soils, though the small-leaved will also prosper in the more adhesive, the alluvial and diluvial clays.
There are a number of kinds of elm growing in this country, differing rather more from the common run of U. montana and U. campestris, than what occurs among seedling varieties of untamed plants; but as these have very probably a power of mingling by the pollen, thence not specifically different, we leave to {51} botanists to explain their nice peculiarities, and think it sufficient to rank the whole under montana and campestris, especially as the timber seems to range into two kinds—Montana, with large leaves, heavy annual shoots, somewhat zig-zag, thick towards the point, thence drooping a little from gravity; having much sap-wood, and timber of great longitudinal toughness, but, from the great quantity of sap-wood, and want of lateral adhesion, it splits considerably in drying;—Campestris, with smaller leaves, more numerous straight annual shoots, which are small towards the point, thence more erect, has but little sap-wood, and the timber also possessing greater lateral adhesion, and less longitudinal, it does not crack much in drying. We have noticed one broad leaved kind or variety, whose annual twigs often spring out in tufts or knots from one point; this seems to arise from the shoot of the preceding year sometimes dying, probably nipped by frost, and the tuft of shoots springing out from the knot at the lower extremity of the dead twig. From this cause, it has not the graceful easy spread of branches of the U. montana, but assumes a more angular, stiff, upright figure. We have heard this named Dutch Elm, but it does not quite correspond with the elm in the parks at London said to be Dutch. We consider it a kind {52} not very nearly allied to U. montana, yet the above peculiarity of appearance may only arise from individual tenderness, and may not be accompanied by other difference of character.