Among other items of expense given by our author, none of which seem to be overstated, we feel grateful for the information, that compost manure of lime, farm-yard dung, and moss, can be obtained, compounded, fermented, conveyed and applied, at the rate of 6d. and 9d. per single and double load!
Sir Henry makes good his assertion, that slow grown timber is always stronger, denser, and more durable than fast grown, by a cloud of witnesses,—every forester, gardener, and carpenter of the {280} country, is ready to attest it of course! There are few sublunary matters which admit of evidence more conclusive. We quote his account of this uniform “law of nature.”
“The same general law operates in a similar way on all woody plants, but of course less rapidly, owing to the less rapid growth of trees, from the lowest bush to the oak of the forest. In all these, the culture of the soil tends to accelerate vegetation, and by consequence to expand the fibre of the wood. It necessarily renders it softer, less solid, and more liable to suffer by the action of the elements. Let us shortly give a few examples of the uniform effect of this law of nature.
“Every forester is aware how greatly easier it is to cut over thorns or furze that are trained in hedges, than such as grow naturally wild, and are exempt from culture. Gardeners experience the same thing in pruning or cutting over fruit trees or shrubs; and, the difference of the texture of the raspberry in its wild and in its cultivated state, is as remarkable; for although the stem in the latter state is nearly double the thickness of that in the former, it is much more easily cut. On comparing the common crab, the father of our orchards, with the cultivated {281} apple, the greater softness of the wood of the latter will be found no less striking to every arboriculturist.
“Further, the common oak in Italy and Spain, where it grows faster than in Britain, is ascertained to be of shorter duration in those countries. In the same way, the oak in the Highland districts of Scotland or Wales, is of a much harder and closer grain, and therefore more durable, than what is found in England; though in such mountains it seldom rises to the fifth part, or less, of the English tree. Every carpenter in Scotland knows the extraordinary difference between the durability of Highland oak and oak usually imported from England, for the spokes of wheels. Every extensive timber-dealer is aware of the superior hardness of oak raised in Cumberland and Yorkshire, over that of Monmouthshire and Herefordshire; and such a dealer in selecting trees in the same woods, in any district, will always give the preference to oak of slow growth, and found in cold and clayey soils, and to ash on rocky cliffs, which he knows to be the soils and climates natural to both. If he take a cubic foot of park-oak, and another of forest-oak, and weigh the one against the other (or if he do the like {282} with ash and elm of the same description), the latter will uniformly turn out the heavier of the two.”
It is certainly the case, that luxuriant growth increases the size of the sap-vessels and cells, but with this increase of size, there is often a proportional increase of thickness of the sides of these vessels and cells, and a greater than proportional filling up of dense matter, as the alburnum is better ripened in autumn, or as the mature wood, especially of hard wood in dry situations, ripens more slowly in the course of years. There is also in many kinds more of close tissue and cellular part, in proportion to large sap-vessels, when the tree is growing vigorously than when it is stunted. (See the facts in our notice of Withers, p. 199.) Thence culture does not necessarily render the timber softer, less solid, and more liable to suffer by the action of the elements. We are really angry with those smooth-tongued rogues who “fool us to the top of our bent.” Every artificer who has worked slow grown ash of considerable age, that is, when most of the timber has been deposited after the tree has been seeding strongly, assures us that the timber is very inferior, in all respects, to that of quicker growth. {283}
We consider the forester who has observed that thorns or furze trained in hedges are much easier cut from softness of timber than when growing in detached bushes, a much better observer than ourselves; and we would inquire whether he were certain that the greater efficiency of his blows was not owing to their being better directed, from the conveniency of access, owing to the training up, than from the timber being softer? The example of the raspberry we consider very irrelevant, it being only a semi-herbaceous plant of biennial stem.
Gardeners certainly experience the branches and roots of crab-apple to be harder than the varieties with thicker bark, larger more downy leaves, and larger fruit. The largest growing apple varieties, however, are not the above mentioned mild varieties, but those which have a pretty close approximation to the crab. We have taken slips from some of the very largest of our pear-trees, and having placed them close to the ground on young stocks, have found they threw out spines and rectangular branching similar to crabs. Those most dissimilar to the crab have thick annual shoots, without any lateral rectangular branching, and very thick bark; they have been gradually bred to this condition by repeated sowing, always choosing the seed of those {284} partaking most of these qualities for resowing, their disposition to vary to mildness being at the same time influenced in some measure by culture and abundant moist nourishment; but these mild varieties, although they throw out a strong annual shoot while young, seldom or never reach to any considerable size of tree, unless they are nourished by crab roots, their own roots being soft and fleshy, and incapable of foraging at much depth or distance. Their branches and twigs as they get old, are also very soft and friable, covered with a thick bark, but the timber of the stem is very little inferior in hardness to crab timber.
We ask, if even the fact of these unnaturally tender varieties (obtained by long-continued selection, probably assisted by culture, soil and climate, and which, without the cherishing of man, would soon disappear), being of rather more porous texture of wood, goes any length to prove our author’s assertion? We have paid some attention to the fibre of the genus Pyrus, and find that the Siberian crabs have by far the smallest vessels. Having grafted the large Fulwood upon the smallest Red Siberian Crab, or Cherry-apple, the new wood layers above the junction swelled to triple the thickness of those below. By ingrafting other kinds upon other {285} stocks, we have found the reverse to take place, no doubt owing to those with largest vessels swelling the most, there being the same number of vessels above and below the junction, each corresponding, or being a continuation of the other[57]. But this small Siberian crab, when ingrafted upon a common crab, grew fully as quickly during several years as the Fulwood under the same circumstances; and the timber, though of much finer texture, scarcely exceeded the other in hardness. Sir Henry tells us, that the oak is less durable in Italy and Spain than in England[58]. We tell Sir Henry, that the red-wood pitch-pine from Georgia and the Floridas, on the confines of the torrid zone, is more durable than the red-wood pine from Archangel, on the confines of the frigid zone. But does this fact {286} regarding the oak of the south of Europe, prove any thing regarding the oak of England,—that it will always he deteriorated by culture for several years after planting, or that the quality may not suffer as much from slowness of growth as from fastness, or from the climate being too cold as from being too warm?
The reason why Highland Scots oak spokes are superior to English, is, because the latter are generally split from out the refuse of the timber cut for naval purposes,—principally the branches and tops of large trees; whereas, those from the Highlands of Scotland are from the root cuts of copse. We believe most carpenters of Scotland are aware of this. The oak from the Highlands of Scotland is, however, for the most part, of excellent quality, growing generally on dry gravel and rock, not on cold moist clayey soils. The hardest we have ever seen was from a steep, dry gravel bank, of south exposure, in an open situation, much exposed to the western breeze. The Highland oak from these soils is generally of a greyish colour, and very dense; whereas that from moist soils is often reddish-brown, and defective. Should Sir Henry weigh portions of oak from these soils in a pair of material, in place of mental scales, we think his conclusions would be {287} somewhat different.—The strongest, hardest ash we have seen, was cut from a hard, dry, adhesive clay, of course a young tree.
Sir Henry, speaking of the Western Highlands and Islands of Scotland, states that “it is from a want of soil, and not of climate, that woods of any given extent cannot be got up in these unsheltered, but romantic situations.” Of many situations of these bleak districts, this must be admitted, but we cannot receive it as a general fact; and even where it holds true, the want of (proper) soil, or formation of peat, is a consequence of the want of climate, although this may have reacted to increase the evil. There must have been a greater warmth of climate, at least in summer, when the forests grew, which lie buried in the mosses of the northern part of Scotland, and of the Orkney and Shetland Islands, as some kinds of timber are found in situations where such kinds, by no circumstances of gradual shelter under the present climate, could have grown. There are several indications of a greater warmth having been general throughout Britain, and even farther eastward, and that a slight refrigeration is still in progress. We instance the once numerous vineyards of England,—the vestiges of aration so numerous upon many of our hills, where it would now be considered fruitless to attempt raising grain, even {288} with the assistance of modern science; and the report that the Caspian is gradually overflowing her shores, a probable consequence of diminished evaporation from decrease of heat.
That this is not wholly owing to the moisture and cold consequent to the moss formation, or to any cover or want of cover to the earth, of timber, or of any other plants which might possibly have effect upon the temperature by shade, evolution of vegetable heat, electric or meteoric agency, we think proved, should the asserted fact be correct, that, in the small oes of Shetland, (so distant from any considerable portion of land as not to be under these influences, and so small, that the climate must be solely dependant upon the sea), timber is found in the morasses, although the climate will not now admit of timber growing, being apparently equally deteriorated as that of the Mainland. It is not improbable that the superior former climate of the North of Scotland and Islands was owing to their having formed, at one time, an extensive country, perhaps joined to the continent, and thus partaking of the continental climate, that is, having a colder winter and warmer summer, capable of producing considerable vigour of arboreous vegetation, and not so favourable to the generating of that fixed vegetable incubus, peat-moss, who has crept over, and folded {289} in her chill embrace, the once fair districts of northern Scotland. The fogs and more steady low temperature of insular situation, which now prevail, not only induce that chemical change in dead and dying vegetables which forms peat-moss, and preserves this moss from decay, but also being too cool for the vegetation of the gramineæ, &c. tend only to promote the general spread of sphagni and other moss-generating plants, which, again, are almost the only plants that can vegetate on acrid moss-flow, as they draw little or nothing from below, and are nourished directly by the moisture and other fluids of the atmosphere.