The reformation in Poland

by Paul Fox

The united opposition of the Polish szlachta to the Polish clergy in 1552, the election of an avowed Protestant to the presidency of the Chamber in that year, and the actual, even though temporary, suspension of ecclesiastical jurisdiction,—all this had a most stimulating affect on the religious reform movement in Poland. Felix Krzyżak and Francis Stankar, who had fled to Great Poland from the persecution of Bishop Zebrzydowski in 1551 and had found protection at Ostrorog in the possessions of Stanislaus and James Ostrorog, returned now to resume their work in Little Poland.[136] For this they were now all the better qualified as a result of their acquaintance with the work of the Bohemian Brethren in Great Poland. They began to hold conferences and synods, thereby stimulating the interest and enthusiasm of the Protestants in the reform movement. The Protestant nobles, having the right of recommending candidates for vacant churches within their possessions, made now direct appointments of men sympathetic with the reform movement. In this way into many of the churches the new form of worship was introduced. At the same time many of the nobles began seriously to question the fundamental right of the clergy to tithes, and stopped payment, even though they had agreed in 1552 to continue this practice.[137] They took these bold steps, believing that the young king was with them. They drew that inference from the king’s close intimacy with Lismanini, who was now an avowed Calvinist, and with others equally well known for their heretical sympathies and contacts.[138]

This growing boldness and aggressiveness of the Protestants provoked the clergy to renewed defensive and offensive activity. At the synod of Piotrków in 1554 the clergy were seriously inclined toward conciliatory measures, and after a long debate, finally resolved to invite the dissidents and schismatics to the next synod in an effort to reconcile them with the Mother Church.[139] But they did not stop with that. They further resolved to appeal to the Pope for help; they requested the Vatican to send special legates to Poland to assist the Polish clergy in their struggle against the spreading heresy, and since the agreement of 1552 was now expired, they began to make fresh use of their ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The first one to set the example again was the archbishop of Gnesen, Dzierzgowski, and his first condemnatory verdict fell on Stanislaus Lutomirski, who had left the Church of Rome twelve years before by accepting Calvinism. Here was another clergyman of noble rank condemned by an ecclesiastical tribunal as a heretic, and thus deprived of honor, property, and country. The next one to exercise his jurisdiction was the bishop of Posen, Czarnkowski, who rendered verdicts of heresy against several citizens of that city. Dziaduski, bishop of Przemyśl, continued persecuting heretical preachers in his diocese. These episcopal condemnations, however, were of no effect; for the condemned persons always found protection in the possessions of some powerful magnate, in whose territory only his own jurisdiction prevailed. In consequence of this the bishops resorted sometimes to violence in order to execute their verdicts, though not necessarily with more success. Bishop Zebrzydowski of Cracow, for instance, summoned before his episcopal tribunal Martin Krowicki, who having become a Calvinist, married, left the priesthood, and was residing at Pinczów, in the possessions of Stanislaus Oleśnicki. When Krowicki did not appear, the bishop condemned him without a trial, and planned to seize him by strategy. Krowicki was taken violently, thrown into a wagon, and carried away to the bishop’s prison. But when Oleśnicki was informed of what had happened, he set out in pursuit of Krowicki’s captors, overtook them, drove them away, and rescued the victim.[140]

While the bishops were vainly prosecuting and persecuting the heretics, the Protestants were steadily strengthening their ranks by perfecting their organization and by effecting a very important union of the Calvinists with the Bohemian Brethren of Great Poland. During his temporary retreat in Great Poland in 1551, caused by Bishop Zebrzydowski’s persecution, Felix Krzyżak, superintendent of the Calvinistic churches of Little Poland, became acquainted with the Bohemian Brethren there, and invited them to unite with the Calvinists of Little Poland. After two preliminary conferences between the representatives of both groups, one held in Little Poland at Chrzęcice, in the possessions of Filipowski, and another in Great Poland at Gołuchow, in the possessions of Raphael Leszczyński, a Protestant synod was called together to meet at Koźminek, near Kalisz, in August, 1555, at which time a union between the two above mentioned bodies was effected. The basis of agreement was that each body retain its separate organization and its form of worship, while both were to work toward gradual uniformity in both respects.[141]

The growth of Protestanism and the development of opposition had made the religious question exceedingly acute, and placed it at the Diet of 1555 in the very forefront of problems calling for immediate settlement. The importance of this question was fully recognized by the king himself, who had placed it among the matters to be discussed. Encouraged by the gains made at the Diet of 1552 and provoked by the high-handed repressive measures employed by the bishops, the Protestants planned to make a still more determined stand at this Diet against ecclesiastical Jurisdiction. At the provincial diets they chose, therefore, some of the most powerful magnates and most ardent Protestants, like Leszczyński, Ostrorog, and Marszewski of Great Poland, and Ossoliński, Siennicki, and others of Little Poland, as deputies of the Chamber.[142] The bishops, realizing the seriousness of the impending conflict, came out in force, and were ready to make concessions, if need be.[143] The Diet, called for the 22nd of April, 1555, met in first session on the 28th. As could have been expected, the Chamber again chose a Protestant for its president in the person of Nicholas Siennicki. In his speech of welcome to the king on behalf of the Chamber the next day, Siennicki stated the wishes of the szlachta. In brief, they wanted the abolition of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and full religious liberty. A project of adjustment was, therefore, worked out, having the full approval of the king and the secular members of the Senate, providing: (1) that everyone be at liberty to keep at home or at his church such clergymen as preached the pure Word of God; (2) that these be free to follow their own ritual and ceremonies; (3) that those wishing it be allowed to have the communion administered in both kinds; (4) that priests deprived of their benefices have them restored for the length of their lives, whereupon the lords were to be free to choose such priests as they might wish, or, where the former incumbent was already dead, the nobles could do as they pleased; (5) that all episcopal judgments in religious matters against whomsoever issued be declared null and void; (6) that the clergy be free to marry; (7) that all the clergy, whatever their rank, be declared entitled to their former incomes, according to old customs; (8) that blasphemy against the Trinity and the Eucharist as celebrated by the Roman Church, attacks upon the form of worship of that church, and forcible conversions of Catholics be prohibited; and (9) that all these provisions have the approval and guaranty of the king and be made binding until the restoration of universal peace either by a national or a provincial synod.[144]

By this document Protestanism in Poland would have been placed on a basis of full equality with the Roman faith. But when this bill was presented to the bishops, they promptly rejected it. Thereupon new plans of adjustment were worked out one after another only to be rejected by the bishops. Finally, it was resolved that the king call together on his own authority, at a time most convenient in his judgment, a synod at which the king himself with his council of state should be present. Until then peace should be preserved in the country; ecclesiastical jurisdiction against whomsoever was to be suspended; the execution of all pending ecclesiastical judgments was to be abandoned; and people were to refrain from all blasphemies and disturbances growing out of religious differences.[145] The bishops, however, remained inflexible; they would not yield an inch in spite of the fact that they had considered making concessions. They protested against the suspension of their ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and through the archdeacon of Kalisz, Francis Krasiński, appealed to the Pope for counsel and for help.[146]

Nevertheless, in spite of the bishops’ protests, the decision of the Diet prevailed and remained in force. By it ecclesiastical jurisdiction became suspended until the meeting of a National Synod to be called together at a convenient time by the king, and Protestantism was for the time being legally recognized, receiving full freedom of worship and the legal right to all the church property already in the hands of Protestants. It was not as much as the Protestants had hoped to gain; nevertheless it was a considerable advance and a marked victory for them.

In accordance with his agreement to call a National Synod together to settle the existing religious differences, the king took steps to secure the Pope’s sanction of this move and of several contemplated reforms. He sent Stanislaus Maciejowski, castellan of Sandomir and crown court marshal, to Rome with congratulations to the new Pope, Paul IV, and with the request for his sanction of the following proposed reforms:

1. The mass and all church services to be held in the Polish language;

2. Communion in both kinds;

3. A married clergy; and